Download - An Introduction to Clinical Decision Making
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An Introduction to An Introduction to Clinical Decision MakingClinical Decision Making
Dr Graham R. NimmoChair, Scottish Clinical Decision Making
Special Interest GroupClinical Skills Managed Educational Network
and Scottish Clinical Skills Network
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OverviewOverview
• Intro to clinical decision making (CDM)
• The five second rule: a case based CDM challenge
• How do we think and make decisions?
• What affects our CDM?
• How can we improve CDM and enhance patient safety?
• Next?
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CDM and non-technical skillsCDM and non-technical skills
• Team working
• Decision making
• Situation awareness
• Task management
• Diagnosis
• Prognosis
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CDM exercise 1CDM exercise 1
• Think about your choice of speciality, profession, job
• What influenced you in that decision making?
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CDM exercise 2CDM exercise 2
Look at the next slide and ask yourself:
• “Which beach would I rather be on?”
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A or B ? A or B ?
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CDM in the acutely illCDM in the acutely ill
• 21 year old with known asthma
• In respiratory ward
• Phone call
• Decisions
• Recognition
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The five second ruleThe five second rule
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CDM in the acutely illCDM in the acutely ill
• In the ward• Assessment and management
• Looks….• Obs….• Actions
System 1 thinking: (intuitive)
Cognitive style HeuristicCognitive style HeuristicCognitive awareness LowCognitive awareness LowCost LowCost LowAutomaticity HighAutomaticity HighRate FastRate FastReliability LowReliability LowErrors UsuallyErrors UsuallyEffort LowEffort LowPredictive power LowPredictive power LowEmotional component HighEmotional component HighScientific rigour LowScientific rigour Low
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Importance of CDM in Importance of CDM in managing sick patientsmanaging sick patients
• Patients still die from ‘simple’ things either missed, delayed or done sub-optimally
• Decisions including diagnosis• Approx 80% of clinical time spent in the
cognitive domain
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1. Acute assessment + stabilisation with immediate investigations and support.
Targeted secondary exam
2.
Monitors: reassess
Surface
Invasive
Real time or Delayed
Illness severity
4.
Differential diagnosis/ definitive diagnosis
Immediate, medium term
and long term
treatment
3.
CDM
Team work
Task Mx
Situation Awareness
Critical Thinking
THE FOUR KEY DOMAINS OF THE FOUR KEY DOMAINS OF EMERGENCY CAREEMERGENCY CARE
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1. Advanced First Aid 1. Advanced First Aid
ASSESSMENT• Hello, how are you ?• Response• Airway: patent ?• Breathing
ACTION• Look: obstruction• Listen: ? noise• Clear or secure:
headtilt/chin lift or jaw thrust? Airway: oral or nasal?
• High concn oxygen: mask type? Flow?
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1. Advanced First Aid 1. Advanced First Aid
ASSESSMENT
• Sounds ?• Common 3 are ?• Causes are ?
ACTION
• Clear and keep open• Get help 2222?• Advanced airway
management required? Tracheal tube? Size? Cut to what length? Are drugs needed for anaesthesia and intubation? If yes, which?
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1. Advanced First Aid1. Advanced First Aid
ASSESSMENT
Sounds • Nil: complete obstruction
or not breathing• Snoring/gurgling: reduced
GCS, foreign material • Stridor: anaphylaxis,
burns/thermal; tumour; abscess/infection
For each ask ‘what is the diagnosis?’
ACTION
• Clear and keep open• Get help 2222• Positioning• Advanced airway
management required
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1. Advanced First Aid plus 2.1. Advanced First Aid plus 2.
OBSERVE• Rate• Volume • Symmetry• Character • Work of breathing• Compromise
Ix & MONITOR• CXR, PEFR, ABGs• Repeat observations• Pulse oximetry
• TREAT• Oxygen• Nebulisers
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1. Advanced First Aid1. Advanced First Aid
ASSESS• Pulse: which pulse?
• Skin: cap refill time, temperature
• BP: where? Which method?
PHYSIOLOGY• MAP = CO x SVR
• CO = HR x SV
• Low BP = decompensation
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1. Advanced First Aid1. Advanced First Aid
iv access
• Site
• Size
• Blood sampling
iv access
• Upper limb
Femoral• High flow: short and
thick• Fluids• Drugs
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Wide bore peripheral cannulaeWide bore peripheral cannulae
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1. Advanced First Aid1. Advanced First Aid
• Disability ?
• Conscious level, focal neurology
• DEFG
• Difficult bit
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IMMEDIATEIMMEDIATEINVESTIGATIONSINVESTIGATIONS
• Arterial blood gases: O2, CO2, acid-base • Potassium• Glucose can all be done on a • Haemoglobin blood gas sample
• 12 lead ECG• CXR• Targeted investigations
• What should we do having analysed this information?
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1. Advanced First Aid1. Advanced First Aid
• Evidence
• Environment: context
• Targeted secondary Examination
• Explanation
• Everything else…
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Advanced First Aid=Phase 1:abcdeAdvanced First Aid=Phase 1:abcde
• abcde, treating as you go
• Repeated assessment and continuous
monitoring: patient better or worse ?
• Do we need enhanced abcde ?
• Targeted secondary examination
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1. Acute assessment + stabilisation & immediate investigations and support.
Targeted secondary exam
2.
Monitors: reassess
Surface
Invasive
Real time or Delayed
Illness severity
4.
Differential diagnosis/ definitive diagnosis
Immediate, medium term
and long term
treatment
3.
CDM
Team work
Task Mx
Situation Awareness
Critical Thinking
THE FOUR KEY DOMAINS OF THE FOUR KEY DOMAINS OF EMERGENCY CAREEMERGENCY CARE
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Illness Severity AssessmentIllness Severity Assessment
• Speed of action needed
• Level & type of expertise: resuscitation;
diagnostic; therapeutic
• Where should the patient be ? Nursing
intensity, monitoring, medical input?
• Definitive treatment: speed ?
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SEVERITY SCORING 1:CLINICALSEVERITY SCORING 1:CLINICAL
ABNORMAL PHYSIOLOGY
• Airway compromised• Resp rate • Pulse rate• SBP• GCS
OBSERVATIONS
• Bad • <10 or >30• <45 or >120• <100 (110) or >200• Fall of 2 points, <15
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SEVERITY SCORING 2: INVESTIGATIONSSEVERITY SCORING 2: INVESTIGATIONS
ABNORMAL INVESTIGATIONS
• Hypoxaemia• Hypercarbia• Potassium• Glucose• H+
• Base excess• Lactate
RESULTS
• <3 or >6 (ECG)• <3 or >20• >50 or <30• < -5 or > +10• Diagnosis ?
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ICM 2001;27:74-83ICM 2001;27:74-83
Base Excess and Mortality Red = Dead Green = survivor
Relationship between base excess and mortality in ICU
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SEVERITY SCORING 3: organ failuresSEVERITY SCORING 3: organ failures
• Clinical: cardiovascular (shock)• CNS reduced conscious level• Urea and creatinine: renal
• ABGs: respiratory (oxygenation+/or CO2 clearance)
• Clotting: coagulation• WBC: bone marrow• Gut/liver: glucose; lactate; clinical
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4. Differential Diagnosis, ultimate 4. Differential Diagnosis, ultimate diagnosis and definitive treatmentdiagnosis and definitive treatment
• Get more history• Trachea• Chest
• JVP and heart• Abdomen• Skin, CNS
• GP, family, SAS • Deviation • Lateralising signs,
wheeze, crackles• HS III or IV, murmurs• Swelling, pulsation• Rashes, neck
stiffness, lateralising signs
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ASSESSMENTASSESSMENT
• A clinical
+• B investigations
+• C organ failures
+• D diagnosis
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Decision makingDecision making
• Diagnosis (and treatment)
• Is the diagnosis correct (complete) ?
• Prognosis
• Admit ?
• Discharge ?
• Stop ?
• Distributed
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Diagnostic ErrorDiagnostic Error
• Ranked 2Ranked 2ndnd cause of adverse events cause of adverse events (Harvard study, 1991)(Harvard study, 1991)
• Diagnostic failure highest in EM, GP, Gen Diagnostic failure highest in EM, GP, Gen Med Med
• Passing on to specialists in wards, ICUPassing on to specialists in wards, ICU
• 2/3 of claims against UK GPs are for 2/3 of claims against UK GPs are for diagnostic failurediagnostic failure
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Type 2 thinking (analytical)
Cognitive styleCognitive style SystematicSystematic
Cognitive awarenessCognitive awareness HighHigh
Cost HighCost High
Automaticity LowAutomaticity Low
Rate Rate LowLow
Reliability Reliability HighHigh
Errors FewErrors Few
Effort HighEffort High
Predictive power HighPredictive power High
Emotional component LowEmotional component Low
Scientific rigour HighScientific rigour High
Diagnosis
• History: full• Examination:
complete
• Investigations
• Differential Dx
• Treatment
• Refine diagnosis
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Categorising Clinical Decision MakingCategorising Clinical Decision Making
• Cognitive theory: traditional
• Technical
• Professional
• Distributed
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Traditional cognitive taxonomy Traditional cognitive taxonomy oror
“how you think it” “how you think it”
• Problem solving
• Pattern recognition
• Decision analysis theory
• Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
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CDM: a universal model of CDM: a universal model of diagnostic reasoningdiagnostic reasoning
Intuitive• Experiential-inductive• Bounded rationality• Heuristic• Pattern recognition• Hard wired response• Thin slicing• Unconscious thinking
theory
Analytical• Hypothetico-deductive• Unbounded rationality• Normative reasoning• Robust CDM• Acquired, critical, logical
thought• Multiple
branching/arborisation• Deliberate, purposeful
thinking
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A or B ? A or B ?
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CDMCDM
What affects clinical decision making ?
• Knowledge and skills
• Behaviours: attitude (multiple selves), emotions (affect: self, family, patients, relatives, colleagues), values.
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What affects clinical decision making ?What affects clinical decision making ?
• Context• Values• Affect• Knowledge• Critical thinking• Interruptions• Clinical reasoning• Words• Non-technical Skills
• Physical factors• Stress and Fatigue• Ergonomics• Experience• What we hear• What we think• Cognitive biases• Heuristics• Epiphanies• Geography
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30 Cognitive Errors after Croskerry30 Cognitive Errors after Croskerry
Aggregate biasAggregate bias Gender biasGender bias Psych-Out ErrorsPsych-Out Errors
AnchoringAnchoring Hindsight biasHindsight bias RepresentativenessRepresentativeness
Ascertainment biasAscertainment bias Multip.Alternatives Multip.Alternatives Search satisficingSearch satisficing
AvailabilityAvailability Omission biasOmission bias Sutton’s SlipSutton’s Slip
Base rate neglectBase rate neglect Order effectsOrder effects Triage-CueingTriage-Cueing
Commission biasCommission bias Outcome biasOutcome bias Unpacking principleUnpacking principle
Confirmation biasConfirmation bias OverconfidenceOverconfidence Vertical line failureVertical line failure
Diagnostic creepDiagnostic creep Playing the oddsPlaying the odds Visceral biasVisceral bias
Attribution errorAttribution error Posterior prob.Posterior prob. Ying-Yang OutYing-Yang Out
Gambler’s FallacyGambler’s Fallacy Premature closurePremature closure Zebra retreatZebra retreat
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Hard wiringHeuristics and BiasesAmbient conditions/ContextTask characteristicsAge and ExperienceAffective stateGenderPersonality
Intellectual abilityEducationTrainingCritical thinkingLogical competenceRationalityFeedback
Pattern Recognition
Repetition
Rationaloverride
Dysrationaliaoverride Calibration Diagnosis
PatientPresentation
PatternProcessor
RECOGNIZED
TYPE
11processes
TYPE
22processes
NOTRECOGNIZED
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1. Acute assessment + stabilisation & immediate investigations and support.
Targetted secondary exam
2.
Mons: reassess
Surface
Invasive
Real time or Delayed
Tissue hypoxia
4.
Differential diagnosis/ definitive diagnosis
Immediate, medium term
and long term
treatment
3.
CDM
Team work
Task Mx
Situation Awareness
Critical Thinking
THE FOUR KEY DOMAINS OF THE FOUR KEY DOMAINS OF EMERGENCY CAREEMERGENCY CARE
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Evidence BasedEvidence BasedMedicineMedicine
Clinician factors:Clinician factors:judgmentjudgment, affect, , affect,
experienceexperience
PatientPatientFactorsFactors
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SolutionsSolutions
• Training in critical thinkingTraining in critical thinking
• Training in major cognitive and affective Training in major cognitive and affective biasesbiases
• Training in logical thoughtTraining in logical thought
• Awareness of self and metacognitionAwareness of self and metacognition
• Timely feedbackTimely feedback
• Training in cognitive forcing strategiesTraining in cognitive forcing strategies
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