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Announcements:
1. Labs meet this week
2. Lab manuals have been ordered
3. Some slides from each lecture will be on the web
4. Study questions will be posted after each lecture
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Monera AnimaliaFungiPlantaeProtista
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
MetazoaProtozoa
HeterotrophicAutotrophic
Absorptive Ingest/digest
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What is an Animal ?
1. Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic, eukaryotes that ingest and digest their food.
2. Animals lack a cell wall.
3. Are capable of moving (during some point in their lives).
4. All animals have regulatory genes called Hox genes.
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•To date > 1.5 million species of animals have been described by biologists
• ~ 10, 000 new species are described each year
•Estimates of the total number of animal species are around 10 million.
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What is a Species?
Species Concepts:
1. Typological species concept: species are distinct, unchanging entities defined by unique, morphological features. This concept has been abandoned by biologists.
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It ignores evolution: species are not “unchanging entities”
Some Problems with the Typological Species Concept
1. Artificial selection: artificial selection for oil content in corn
High oil
Low oil
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Natural selection: Trinidadian guppies
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Sexual Dimorphism: the sexes differ morphologically
Some Problems with the Typological Species Concept
Sailfin molly
femalemale
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Alternative morphs:
e.g. horn polymorphisms in beetles
Some Problems with the Typological Species Concept
Hornlessmorph
Hornedmorph
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Cline: a change in in morphology along an environmental gradient
Some Problems with the Typological Species Concept
Size in yarrow
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Some Problems with the Typological Species Concept
Latitude
Drosophila subobscura
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Cryptic species: some species are similar morphologically but differ in other important ways
Some Problems with the Typological Species Concept
Western meadowlark
Eastern meadowlark
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What is a species?
Species Concepts:
2. Biological species concept: a species is a population or group of populations that can potentially interbreed and produce viable,fertile offspring, but that is reproductively isolated from other populations.
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There is tremendous morphological variation within Homo sapiens. But all humans can potentially interbreed.
In contrast, some species are very similar morphologically but can not interbreed…
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Western meadowlark Eastern meadowlark
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Mechanisms of reproductive isolation:
1. Prezygotic barriers: prevent mating or fertilization
•Behavioral
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Western meadowlark Eastern meadowlark
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Mechanisms of reproductive isolation:
1. Prezygotic barriers: prevent mating or fertilization
•Behavioral
•Temporal
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Western spotted skunk: summer breeder
Eastern spotted skunk: winter breeder
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Mechanisms of reproductive isolation:
1. Prezygotic barriers: prevent mating or fertilization
•Behavioral
•Temporal
•Habitat isolation
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Aquatic garter snake Terrestrial garter snake
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Mechanisms of reproductive isolation:
1. Prezygotic barriers: prevent mating or fertilization
2. Postzygotic barriers: prevent hybrid from developing into a viable, fertile adult
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Some problems with the biological species concept:
1. It is hard to apply especially to fossil data.
2. Species exist in time and space: the biological species concept has no time component.
3. What do we do with asexual organisms?
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•Bdelloid Rotifers haven’t reproduced sexually for > 80 million years- each individual is reproductively isolated !
•An estimated 2000 species are completely asexual.
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Species Concepts:
1. Typological species concept
2. Biological species concept
3. Evolutionary species concept
• Incorporates time
4. Ecological species concept
• Incoporates niche
5. Phylogenetic species concept
• Incorporates unique, evolved traits
These have all been proposed to solve some of the problems of the other concepts
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•To date > 1.5 million species of animals have been described by biologists
• ~ 10, 000 new species are described each year
•Estimates of the total number of animal species are around 10 million.
•How do biologists organize all of this diversity?
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Classification and Phylogeny of Animals
•Taxonomy: the branch of biology that deals with the systematic classification and naming of species (or groups of species) (long pre-Darwinian history).
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Carolus Linnaeus (1707- 1778)
•Swedish botanist
•Systema Naturae: a classification scheme that used morphology to group organisms into hierarchical categories
Taxonomy
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Linnaean Classification
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
species
•In this scheme the major categories are called taxa
•Higher taxa are increasingly inclusive
•Each species is given a unique binomial name: Binomial nomenclature
Taxonomy
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Linnaean Classification: an example
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Piciformes
Family: Picidae
Genus: Melanerpes
species: carolinus
Taxonomy
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Linnaean Classification: another example
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Piciformes
Family: Picidae
Genus: Melanerpes
species: erythrocephalus
Taxonomy
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Linnaean Classification: another example
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Piciformes
Family: Ramphastidae
Genus: Ramphastos
species: sulfuratus
Taxonomy
Keeled toucan
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Linnaean Classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Order: Primates
Suborder: Anthropoidea
Family: Pongidae
Subfamily: ~
Genus: Gorilla
species: gorilla
Taxonomy
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Classification and Phylogeny of Animals
•Taxonomy: the branch of biology that deals with the systematic classification and naming of species (or groups of species) (long pre-Darwinian history).
•Systematics: the branch of biology that seeks to understand the evolutionary relationships between groups of organisms (post-Darwinian).
-One of the major goals of systematics is the construction of phylogenies
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Systematics
Phylogeny: an evolutionary tree that depicts the relationships between living and extinct species (or higher taxonomic groups)
A CB D
Most recent common ancestor of C and D
Most recent common ancestor of A and B
Most recent common ancestor of A, B, C and D
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What kind of information is used to construct phylogenies?
•Characters: organismal features that vary among species (morphological or molecular characteristics)
Systematics
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Morphological characters used to construct phylogenies-
•Levels of organization:
1. Cellular level: an aggregation of cells that are functionally differentiated, but that are not organized into tissues
2. Tissue level: cells are organized into tissues that have a specific function
3. Organ level: tissues are aggregated into organs that have specialized functions
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sponges
jellyfish, corals, etc.
other animals
cellularlevel
tissue level
organ level
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Morphological characters used to construct phylogenies
•Type of symmetry: the arrangement of body structures relative to some axis of the body
1. Asymmetrical:
2. Radial symmetry:
3. Bilateral symmetry:
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Asymmetrical
Bilateral
Radial
No plane can divide the body into two symmetrical halves
> 1 plane can divide the body into two symmetrical halves
1 plane divides the body into two symmetrical halves
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sponges
jellyfish, corals, etc.
other animals
asymmetrical
radial symmetry
bilateral symmetry
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Characters used to construct phylogenies
•The presence of different body structures
•Developmental patterns
•Molecular data: DNA / RNA sequence data
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What kind of information is used to establish these relationships?
•Characters: organismal features that vary among species (morphological or molecular characteristics)
•Homologous characters: characters that are similar to one another due to shared ancestry (not necessarily shared function)
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Examples of homologous characters: Vertebrate forelimbs
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•Analogous characters: characters that are similar to one another in function, but not ancestry.
•Analogous characters are not useful in determining the evolutionary relationships between organisms.
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Examples of analogous characters: bat wings and insect wings
Bat wing Fly wing
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Classification and Phylogeny of Animals
•Taxonomy: the branch of biology that deals with the systematic classification and naming of species (or groups of species) (long pre-Darwinian history).
•Systematics: the branch of biology that seeks to understand the evolutionary relationships between groups of organisms (post-Darwinian).