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AQA ExaminationsA Level Sport and Physical Education
A 6581
Module 4 part E
Physiological, Biomechanical and Psychological Factors which Optimise Performance
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INDEX26 - ATTITUDES IN SPORT27 - FORMATION OF ATTITUDES28 - COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL29 - MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES BY OBSERVATION / USING PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS
QUESTIONNAIRES30 - PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES 31 - POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT32 - ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE33 - AGGRESSION IN SPORT ASSERTION / CHANNELLED AGGRESSION HOSTILE AGGRESSION / INSTRUMENTAL
AGGRESSION34 - CAUSES OF AGGRESSION PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL UNDERDEVELOPED MORAL REASONING BRACKETED MORALITY / SPECIFIC CAUSES35 - THEORIES OF AGGRESSION INSTINCT / FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION THEORIES SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY AGGRESSIVE CUE HYPOTHESIS36 - SPECTATOR AGGRESSION37 - RESPONSIBILITY FOR AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR38 - PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR GOVERNING BODY39 - PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR COACHES / PLAYERS
Index
3 - PERSONALITY4 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - TRAIT
TRAIT THEORIES - CATTELL - EYSENCK5 - EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS6 - EVALUATION OF TRAIT THEORIES7 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - BANDURAVICARIOUS CONDITIONING
8 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST - LEWIN10 - MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY INTERVIEWS / QUESTIONNAIRES / OBSERVATION11 - THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE12 - PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS) - MOODS13 - SELF REPORT TESTS - PROBLEMS WITH THE TESTS14 - MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS - THEORIES15 - INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION16 - EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES17 - MAJOR MOTIVES FOR YOUTH / ADULT SPORT PARTICIPATION18 - THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION DISADVANTAGES / EXPLANATIONS / APPLICATION19 - DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS / SITUATIONAL ASPECTS20 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH) / NEED TO AVOID FAILURE
(NAF)21 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS22 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS23 - MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING GOAL STRUCTURE - OUTCOME / TASK ORIENTATION24 - MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING ENHANCING MOTIVATION25 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION WHAT SHOULD THE COACH DO?
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PERSONALITY
Personality
PERSONALITY• unique characteristics of an individual• knowledge about personality is important to
ensure optimum sporting performance
PER SONALI TYSOCI AL LEARN I N Gbehaviours learnt by
observation andcopying
TR AI Tinnate andenduring
I N TER ACTI ON I STm ixture of trait
and social learning
extroversionintroversion
neuroticstable
type Atype B
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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY- TRAITTRAIT THEORIES• general (covering all situations)• underlying (inside of and part of the person)• enduring (long lasting)• predisposition (an inclination or motive formed earlier)
CATTELL - EYSENCK’s hierarchical organisation of personality
Personality
PER SONALI TY
EXTR OVER SI ON(deals w ith others
easily andcom fortably)
PR I MAR YTR AI T
I N TR OVER SI ON(prefers to rem ain
independent /iso lated from others)
STABI LI TY(behaviour
rem ains the sam eover tim e)
N EUR OTI C I SM(behaviours
changeunpredictably)
SECON D ARYTRAI T
im pulsivenesssociability activityliveliness excitability
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EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS
WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONS A - B - C - D?
Personality
A• stable extrovert• talkative, outgoing, easy going,
carefree, showing leader qualities
B• neurotic extrovert• restless, aggressive, excitable,
changeable
C• neurotic introvert• anxious, sober, rigid, pessimistic
D• stable introvert• careful, thoughtful, controlled,
reliable, even tempered
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EVALUATION OF TRAIT THEORIES
THE TRAIT APPROACH• is seen as being too simple• and therefore produces a limited
view of what personality actually is• fails to recognise that people are
actively involved in constructing their own personalities
• and fails to recognise the effects of environmental situations
• as predicted by social learning and interactionist theories
TRAITS• do not predict behaviour• are seen as rigid (they are
supposed to be enduring and fixed with time)
• the notion that traits are enduring is seen as too long-term - people think that personality factors can change with time
• subject to situations which occur which might change these factors
Personality
TRAIT THEORIES• have a lack of sophistication• have problems of validity - how do
you confirm that the traits exist?
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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY• explains behaviour in terms of the
reaction to specific situations• we learn to deal with situations by
observing others• or by observing the results of our
own behaviour on others• and by modelling our own behaviour
on what we have seen– athletes learn behaviour by
watching others
BANDURA• behaviour is determined by the
situation– social comparison– behaving the same way as the
peer group• social approval or disapproval
determines our responses– behaviour is reinforced or
penalised
VICARIOUS CONDITIONING• the learning of emotional
responses through observational learning
• example : – learning to become angry after
a valid referee decision has gone against him / her by watching other players do the same
Personality
SOCIALISATION• sport has a socialising effect• participation in sport establishes
norms and values of our society
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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST
INTERACTIONIST THEORIES• traits determine behaviour• but can be modified by situations
– traits– situations– behaviour
LEWIN• behaviour is a function of both the
person (personality P) and the environment (E)
• B = f(P,E)
Personality
TH E SI TUATI ON
THE PER SON(PER SONALI TY)
BEH AVI OUR
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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST
Personality
EXAMPLE OF INTERACTIONIST THEORY APPROACH• a young field event athlete shows promise, but worries about competing
in important competitions and underperforms in these situations• her coach works with her on anxiety management strategies and in
her next competition she achieves a personal best
• the innate (trait) factors of the athlete’s personality cannot be changed by a coach
• so the coach must therefore get her to view her anxiety (which could be a trait which emerges whenever undue stress is placed on her) in terms of the specific situation of the next competition
• the anxiety could be channelled into positive images of her technical model
• rejecting poor efforts as due to external factors (the the weather / wind)• and building on positive images of successful technical elements
achieved• the athlete can then build success by this focusing on factors other than
her own anxiety• this enables her to adjust her behaviour according to internal factors
such as rhythm and fluency• this strategy should enable the athlete to remove the stress from the
situation and hence reduce anxiety - even if she competes poorly
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MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY
INTERVIEWS• before or after the
event• not directly related to
performance• open ended and
flexible• transient feelings or
attitudes may be expressed
• difficult to quantify accurately
• may be influenced by the interviewer
Personality
QUESTIONNAIRES• before or after the
event• not directly related to
performance• rigidly and
systematically set out• transient feelings or
attitudes may be expressed
• able to quantify accurately
• would not be influenced by another
• can be used to assess specific traits
OBSERVATION• made during an actual
event• directly related to
performance• varies according to the
competitive nature of the event
• difficult to quantify accurately
• may be influenced by the observer’s views and attitudes
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THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE
Personality
suspecting - accepting
lax - controlled
relaxed - tense
adventurous - shy
m ature - im m ature
tim id - confident
sociable - aloof
aggressive - m ild
enthusiastic - prudent
self-suffi cient - grouporiented
sensitive - tough
im aginative - practical
sophisticated -unpretentious
conscientious - casual
m entally bright -m entally dull
radical - conservative
high anxietylow anxiety
extroversionintroversion
tough m indedtender m inded
independencesubduedness
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PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS)
MOODS• are an important aspect of
personality which may influence sports performance
• tension• depression• anger• vigour• fatigue• confusion
• unsuccessful sportspeople show high– tension– depression– fatigue– confusion
• low– vigour
Personality
• elite sportspeople show low– tension– depression– confusion
• high– vigour
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SELF REPORT TESTS
PROBLEMS WITH THE TESTS• lack of accuracy• participant honesty• the desire to create a
favourable impression and therefore give answers which is what the questioner wants, not what the subject feels
• lack of objectivity• neurotics emphasise certain
traits• ambiguous questions
Personality
THE ANSWERS CAN BE INFLUENCED BY :
• personality of the tester
• time of day / month• previous experience of
a test by a subject• a participant’s mood
swings• the fact that personality
is too complex to be viewed in response to yes or no answers
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MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORSMOTIVATORS• the reasons why sportspeople
think and behave as they do
THEORIES
Motivation
MOTI VATI ON
perform ance
continuity
drive tostrive
persistence
intensity
direction
socialperception
goalorientation
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INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Motivation
MOTI VATI ONthe drive to
strive
EXTR I N SI CMOTI VATI ON
positive andnegative
reinforcem entcriticism
trophies
m oney badges
praise
fam e
I N TR I N SI CMOTI VATI ON
com petence m astery feeling goodINTRINSIC MOTIVATION
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EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES
EXTRINSIC REWARDS
INTRINSIC SOURCES
Motivation
I N TR I N SI CSOUR CES
satisfaction achievem ent feeling good
EXTR I N SI CR EW AR DS
certificates
trophies
m oney
badges
m edals
positivepraisefam e
w inning
negativecriticism
defeat
TAN GI BLE
I N TAN GI BLE
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MAJOR MOTIVES
FOR YOUTH SPORT PARTICIPATION
• fun• being with friends• thrills• excitement• success• developing fitness• improving skills• being good at it
FOR ADULT SPORT PARTICIPATION
• health factors• weight loss• fitness• self-challenge• feeling better
Motivation
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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
DISADVANTAGES• adding extrinsic reward to a situation which
already provided intrinsic motivation• decreases the intrinsic motivation• eventually replacing it• so when rewards are no longer available• interest in the situation (sports activity)
reduces
EXPLANATIONS• the reward acts as a distraction• to the sports person’s intrinsic desire to
work at his / her own pace• rewards may turn play into work• relationships with the person giving
rewards might change• the nature of the activity changes• people like to determine their own
behaviour• rewards may make them feel that
someone else is in charge
APPLICATION OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
• to attract youngsters to an activity
• to revive flagging motivation• to help a sportsperson over a
bad period in training• to provide information about
levels of achievement and competence
Motivation
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DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION IS A COMBINATION OF• personal characteristics• situational aspects
MOTIVATION IS HIGHEST WHEN• the performer is keen to
participate• the performer is keen to learn• the performer is keen to perform• the performer is keen to perform
effectively• when the motivational climate is
right• when the training programme is
interesting and varied
MOTIVATION IS REDUCED BY• routine• competition between motives
PEOPLE• have multiple motives• share motives• have unique motivational profiles• need variation in training and
competition• need variation in intensity and
competitiveness• need structured coaching and
teaching environments
MOTIVES CHANGE OVER TIME
TEACHERS AND COACHES ARE IMPORTANT MOTIVATORS
Motivation
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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION• the drive to achieve success for its
own sake• related to
– competitiveness– persistence– striving for perfection
• influenced by– personality factors
• need to achieve• need to avoid failure
– situational factors• probability of success• incentive value of success
NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH)Tendency to approach success (Ts)• this personality type likes a
challenge• likes feedback• is not afraid of failure• has high task persistence
NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF)Tendency to avoid failure (Taf)• this personality type avoids
challenges• does not take risks• often gives up• does not want feedback
(Atkinson and McClelland)
Motivation
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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
A =• someone with a high need to
achieve• will probably have a low need to
avoid failure• will choose difficult or
demanding tasks which are more risky
• the hard route up a rock face
Motivation
B =• someone with a high need to
avoid failure• will probably have a low need
to achieve• will choose tasks which are less
risky and more easily achieved• the easy route up the rock face
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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS
A =• probability of success low• (competing against the world
champion)• therefore strive very hard to win• (incentive high)• (will be highly chuffed if win)
Motivation
B =• probability of success high• (competing in local club match)• therefore don’t need to try as
hard to win• (incentive low)• (and expect to win easily)• (not so pleasing)
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MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING
GOAL STRUCTURE• easily attained initially• progressively more difficult• training goals should be planned around overall
goals• short-term / medium-term / long-term• goal setting as a means of managing anxiety /
stress• goal setting to increase motivation
GOALS ARE EITHEROUTCOME ORIENTED• towards the end result of the sporting activity• example : to win a raceTASK ORIENTED• performance oriented
– judged against other performances– example : to beat best time
• process oriented– improvement in techniques
Achievement Motivation
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MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING
TO ENHANCE MOTIVATION, GOALS SHOULD BE
• stated positively• specific to the situation and the performer• time phased• challenging• achievable - achievement would enhance
self-efficacy at the sporting task• measurable• negotiated between sportsperson and
coach• progressive, from short-term to long-term• performance / task oriented rather than
outcome oriented• written down• reviewed regularly (with downward
adjustment if necessary - in the case of injury)
Achievement Motivation
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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATIONWHAT SHOULD THE COACH DO?IMPROVE NEED AND MOTIVE TO ACHIEVE (Nach)• increase positive reinforcement hence increasing pride and
satisfaction• ensure that goals are achievable• ensure that at least some situations guarantee success• and subsequently gradually increase task difficulty in line with
progress• ensure that tasks are challenging• ensure that the probability of success is good• ensure that the incentive value of the success is high (is the race
worth winning?)REDUCE TENDENCY AND MOTIVE TO AVOID FAILURE (NaF)• reduce punishment hence lowering the chance of performer worrying
about failure• focus negative feedback on effort rather than ability• this avoids the performer tending to believe that causes of failure are
internal (due to lack of ability for example)• and reduces the risk of learned helplessness (see next slide)• avoid situations where defeat / failure is inevitable (such as
performing against a much superior opponent)• if this is not possible alter the criteria for success (you will have
succeeded if you only lose by 2 goals)
Motivation
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ATTITUDES IN SPORT
ATTITUDES• a combination of beliefs and feelings about :
– objects– people– situations– (called attitude objects)
• this predisposes us to behave in a certain way towards them
• learned or organised through experience
• evaluative• they lead us to think and behave positively or negatively• about an attitude object
• tend to be deep seated• and enduring• but can change or be changed
Attitudes
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FORMATION OF ATTITUDES
Attitudes
FOR M ATI ON OFATTI TUD ES
friendsm edia
prejudice
pastexperiences
teacherscoaches
peers
fam ily
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COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL
Attitudes
ATTI TUD Eto regular exercise
COGNI TI VEknow ledge and beliefs
exam ple : fitness trainingkeeps m e fit
BEHAVI OURALintended behaviour
exam ple : I attend trainingsessions regularly
AFFECTI VEfeelings and em otions
exam ple : I enjoy training
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MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDESBY OBSERVATION• related to actual events as
they are happening• difficult to quantify or
measure• open to interpretation by
observer
USING PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS• indicators such as
– blood pressure– skin conductivity– brain activity (ECG)
• can be interpreted to indicate telling the truth – about an attitude object
• measurable• independent of observer• but takes a long time to set up
requiring special apparatus
QUESTIONNAIRES• only as good as the questions
asked• measurable using
– Thurstone scale– Likert scale– Osgood’s Semantic
Differential Scale
Attitudes
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PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES
NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES • women in strength, endurance
and contact sports
• participation of the disabled in physical activity
• older age groups interest and ability at sport
• participation of particular ethnic groups in specific sports or positions within teams
• examples : – the black quarterback in
American Football– the black sprinter– the white skier / swimmer
Attitudes
PREJUDICE• a prejudgement of a person,
group, or situation• usually based on inadequate
information• or inaccurate or biased
information• which reinforces stereotypes
• example : – women are often excluded
from male dominated sports clubs or events
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POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT
POSITIVE ATTITUDES• has a positive physical self-
concept• satisfaction from participation
in sport• believe sport promotes health• success at sport• willing to try new activities• encouraged by significant
others• participates regularly• opportunity to participate
Attitudes
NEGATIVE ATTITUDES• had negative experiences at
sport• have lifestyle which makes
regular sport difficult• find sport frustrating• lack encouragement• unlikely to participate in sport• have a negative self concept• find sport boring
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ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION• the person must
– pay attention– understand– accept– retain– the message being given
• the coach must– be expert– be trustworthy
• the message must– be clear– be unambiguous– be balanced between
emotion and logic– be balanced between pros
and cons
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE• the person must
– be consistent between• cognitive• affective• behavioural
components
• the person must be consistent between different elements
• cognitive dissonance occurs hence attitudes must change– if two factual elements of
attitude conflict– example : the smoker who
knows that smoking is bad for health
Attitudes
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AGGRESSION IN SPORT
ASSERTION• sometimes called
CHANNELLED AGGRESSION• no intent to harm• legitimate force within the
rules• unusual effort• unusual energy
HOSTILE AGGRESSION• intent to harm• goal is to harm• arousal and anger involved
INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION• intent to harm• goal to win• used as a tactic ‘dirty play’• no anger• illegal in all sports except
boxing
Aggression
AGGR ESSI ON
includes verbalaggression ifintended to
em barrass orhurt
m ain purpose is theintention to harm
another participantplayer / um pire /
spectator
outside therules of the
sport
not includeeyeballing orintentionally
dam agingequipm ent
not includeaccidentally
injuringor harm ing
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CAUSES OF AGGRESSION
PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL• anger towards another person• causing an increase in arousal• highly motivated
UNDERDEVELOPED MORAL REASONING• players with low levels of moral
reasoning• more likely to be aggressive
BRACKETED MORALITY• double standard• condoning aggressive behaviour may
retard players’ moral development• ‘aggression is wrong in life, but OK in
sport’
SPECIFIC CAUSES• high environmental
temperature• home or away• embarrassment• losing• pain• unfair officiating• playing below capability• large score difference• low league standing• later stage of play (near the
end of a game)• reputation of opposition (get
your retaliation in first)
Aggression
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THEORIES OF AGGRESSION
INSTINCT THEORY• aggression is innate and instinctive• caused by survival of the species• sport releases built up aggression,
catharsis• Lorentz
FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION THEORY
• aggression caused by frustration• the person being blocked in the
achievement of a goal• this causes a drive towards the
source of frustration• Dollard
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY• aggression is learned• by observation of other’s
behaviour• then imitation of this aggressive
behaviour• this is then reinforced by social
acceptance of the behaviour• Bandura
AGGRESSIVE CUE HYPOTHESIS• frustration causes anger and arousal• this creates a readiness for
aggression• which can be initiated by an incident
during the performance (the cue)• this is a learned response• example : a player sees a colleague
fouled then decides to join in• Berkowitz
Aggression
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SPECTATOR AGGRESSION
Aggression
SPECTATOR AGGRESSION caused by
• player aggression• poor or biased officials• alcohol• racial or national abuse• adult male crowd
SUPPORTERS can help prevent aggression by
• avoid showing aggression• avoid advocating aggression
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RESPONSIBILITY FOR AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
Aggression
R ESPON SI BI LI TYFOR
AGGR ESSI ON
infl uentialothers
theperform er
coaches
teachers
offi cials
parents
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PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
GOVERNING BODY• code of conduct
– coaches– players– officials
• use of strong officials
• use of rules of games– punishment (remove league
points)– sin bins– reward non-aggressive acts (FIFA
fair play award)
• use of language– reduce media sensationalism
• coach education programme
Aggression
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PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOURAggression
COACHES / PLAYERS• promote ethical behaviour• stress that each individual has a responsibility for
reducing aggression• promote sporting behaviour• use role models with none aggressive methods
• control aggressive behaviour• stress management strategies / relaxation techniques• self control strategies• reduce levels of arousal
• maintain a healthy will to win without winning being everything
• set task / performance goals rather than outcome goals
• remove players from field if at risk of aggression• enable channelling of aggression towards a performance
goal• use peer pressure ‘avoid letting the side down’• stress group responsibility for eliminating aggression