![Page 1: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Basic Scientific ReasoningBasic Scientific Reasoning
4/25/2007
![Page 2: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
What is Science?What is Science?Astrology
Psychoanalysis
Physics
Psychophysics
Mathematics
Phrenology
Biology
Psychology
Scientology
Economics
Cognitive Science
Chemistry
Sociology
History
Cognitive Ethology
![Page 3: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Defining ScienceDefining Science
• Is science defined by its method of reasoning?– Its results?– The phenomena it studies?– An attitude towards evidence?– A certain methodology?– Scientists?– The power relationships in which it is embedded?– Its value to the larger culture?– Use of (grounding on) mathematics?
![Page 4: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Why should I care?Why should I care?
• ‘Science says that…’ ‘The top scientists think that…’
• States that have (or are) debated teaching creationism in elementary science education (2002-present):– Georgia– Kentucky– Kansas– Dover, Pennsylvania– Maryland– The President
![Page 5: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
A DemonstrationA Demonstration
• So how does ‘real’ science work?• 2-4-6 problem
![Page 6: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
![Page 7: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
![Page 8: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
![Page 9: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
![Page 10: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Preliminary Lessons from Preliminary Lessons from 2-4-62-4-6
1. Science is an activity of real people who work in a social environment
2. There is nothing ‘special’ about the methods of reasoning used in science
3. When scientists ‘converge’ on the answer is often determined by social factors.
![Page 11: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Structures of Reasoning Structures of Reasoning on display in 2-4-6on display in 2-4-6
Verification - Affirming the consequent:IF P THEN QQTHEREFORE, P
Example:IF aliens killed JFK, THEN there would be questions
regarding the ‘single-shooter’ theory.
There are questions regarding the ‘single-shooter’ theory.
THEREFORE, aliens killed JFK.
![Page 12: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
VerificationVerificationIF the rule is ‘Any three numbers such that x
< y < z’, THEN 2-4-6 will fit.2-4-6 does fitTHEREFORE, the rule is ‘Any three numbers
such that x < y < z’
IF the rule is ‘Any three numbers (x, y, z > 0) such that y = x+2 and z = y+2’, THEN 2-4-6 will fit.
2-4-6 does fit.THEREFORE, the rule is ‘Any three numbers (x, y, z
> 0) such that y = x+2 and z = y+2’
![Page 13: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Verification’s ProblemsVerification’s Problems
• Can’t ensure the truth of the theory that entails the verified prediction
• Can’t distinguish between two theories that both entail the verified prediction
![Page 14: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Structures of Reasoning Structures of Reasoning on display in 2-4-6on display in 2-4-6
Falsification - Modus Tollens:IF P THEN QNOT-QTHEREFORE, NOT-P
Example:IF aliens killed JFK, THEN Jack Ruby is an alien.
Jack Ruby is NOT an alien.
THEREFORE, aliens did NOT kill JFK.
![Page 15: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
FalsificationFalsificationApplication to 2-4-6:
IF the rule is ‘any three numbers (x,y,z) such that x > y < z’, THEN the sequence ‘4-2-8’ will fit.
The sequence 4-2-8 does NOT fit.THEREFORE, the rule is NOT ‘any three numbers
(x,y,z) such that x > y < z’
IF the rule is ‘any three symbols (x,y,z) such that x < y < z in their standard order’, THEN the sequence ‘a-b-c’ will fit.
The sequence a-b-c does NOT fit.THEREFORE, the rule is NOT ‘any three symbols
(x,y,z) such that x < y < z in their standard order’
![Page 16: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Falsification’s Virtues & Falsification’s Virtues & VicesVices
• Still can’t ensure the truth of the theory that entails the verified prediction
• CAN distinguish between two theories, so long as there is at least one prediction that is entailed by one & NOT by the other.
![Page 17: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
The DN Model of The DN Model of ExplanationExplanation
• Explanations are sound arguments (valid w/ true premises) that entail the event to be explained.
L1, L2, … Ln
F1, F2, … Fn
E
Explanans
Explanandum
Laws (usually conditionals)Facts
Phenomenon Explained
![Page 18: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
ExampleExample
• Explanations are sound arguments (valid w/ true premises) that entail the event to be explained.
For all cases, if you stimulate the L cone, the subject experiences a sensation of red.
My L cone is stimulated
Therefore, I have a sensation of red.
Explanans
Explanandum
![Page 19: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
H-DH-D
• Notice the relation to falsification’s H-D method:
For all cases, if you stimulate the L cone, the subject will experience a sensation of red. I am not experience red
Therefore, my cone is not stimulated
Explanans
Explanandum
Notice also that all explanandi are potential predictions!
![Page 20: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Real scientists don’t work that way.
![Page 21: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Quine-Duhem ThesisQuine-Duhem Thesis
Any hypothesis can be defended in light of any evidence. (if you’re willing to make “drastic enough adjustments elsewhere” in your system of beliefs.)
IF Hypothesis is true, THEN Prediction.
Prediction is NOT true
THEREFORE, the hypothesis is NOT true
VALID
![Page 22: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
DogmatismDogmatism
Any proposition can be made consistent with any scientific theory, if one tries hard enough– Gender, Intelligence, Variability and
Pre- and Post-Darwin Biology– Myths of Gender by Anne Fausto-
Sterling
![Page 23: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Here, the Devil lurksHere, the Devil lurks
IF my Hypothesis is true,
Prediction is NOT true
THEREFORE, at least one of (1) – (N) is NOT true
(1) AND My apparatus works,
(2) AND My experiment is correctly designed,
(3) AND My subject is of interest to others, …
THEN, prediction.
(N) AND ….
![Page 24: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Summary: Biases creep:Summary: Biases creep:
1. Shifting categories2. Ambiguous measurements will
reveal prejudices (artifacts of instruments)
3. Failure to consider alternative hypotheses (I.e. body size / gender)
4. Miscalculations (confirmation bais)
![Page 25: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
(Brief) History of Color (Brief) History of Color ScienceScience
Basic Schema:
![Page 26: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Hermann von HelmholtzHermann von Helmholtz(1821-1894)(1821-1894)
Short = Purple Middle = Green Long = Red
![Page 27: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Historical Note:Historical Note:• In 1877, Ladd-Franklin became the first woman
to attend (albeit unofficially) Johns Hopkins where she studied mathematics.
• She wrote a dissertation under the supervision of C.S. Pierce. It was published in 1883, but her Ph.D. was not awarded until 1926!
• Even though she had studied under Helmholtz and had published a great deal in psychological journals, she was never admitted to the American Psychological Association meetings to present her papers.
• While she lectured at John Hopkins, Columbia, Clark, Harvard and Chicago, she never held an official academic post, and she was rarely paid.
• Her book Color and Color Theories was finally published in 1929, one year before her death.
![Page 28: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930)Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930)IF stimulating the long-wavelength cone yields a red experience, and stimulating the middle-wavelength cone yields a green experience, THEN stimulating both the long and middle-wavelength cone would….
yield an experience of reddish-green
![Page 29: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
L-F’s argument (L-F’s argument (≈≈1892)1892)
IF stimulating the long-wavelength cone yields a red experience, and stimulating the middle-wavelength cone yields a green experience, THEN stimulating both the long and middle-wavelength cone would yield an experience of reddish-green
Stimulating L and M yields an experience of yellow.
THEREFORE, Helmholtz’s theory is NOT true
Yellow does NOT look like reddish-green.
THEREFORE, yellow is NOT reddish-green.
Good Argument Right?
![Page 30: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Why not?Why not?“Helmholtz deemed it illegitimate or at least
untrustworthy to draw conclusions as to physiological processes from the direct psychological character of the sensations”-Von Kries
![Page 31: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Q-D for HelmholtzQ-D for Helmholtz
IF stimulating the Long-wavelength cone yeilds a red experience, and stimulating the middle-wavelength cone yields a green experience, THEN stimulating both the Long and Middle-wavelength cone would yield an experience of reddish-green
Stimulating L and M yields an experience of yellow.
THEREFORE, Helmholtz’s theory is NOT true
THEREFORE, Yellow is NOT reddish-green.
Yellow does NOT look like reddish-green.
BUT: One cannot draw conclusions about the physiology of color from this fact, so it does not follow that:
yellow is not reddish-green or greenish-red.
![Page 32: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Note:Note:
The Gestalt Psychologist David Katz made the phenomenology of color appearance the starting point for a theory of color (1908).
![Page 33: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Vindication:Vindication:In 1957, Dorothea Jameson & Dale
Hurvich proposed what is now called the ‘opponent-processing’ model of color perception. According to it, colors are given by mixing 4 primary colors which are arranged in opponent pairs:Red GreenBlue Yellow
This is now the dominant theory in color science
![Page 34: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
VindicationVindicationPerformed by Jameson and Hurvich in 1957. A test light is shown to a subject. If the light appears greenish, a red-appearing light is added until the test light no longer appears at all greenish.
![Page 35: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Jameson and Hurvich Jameson and Hurvich ResultsResults
![Page 36: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Cone Sensitivity CurvesCone Sensitivity Curves
![Page 37: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Mathematical Transformation Mathematical Transformation of Cone Sensitivity Functionsof Cone Sensitivity Functions
• We decorrelate the responses of the L, M and S cones by weighting each signal with a constant, and combining those results:
C1() = 1.0L() + 0.0M() + 0.0S()
C2() = -0.59L() + 0.80M() + -0.12S()
C3() = -0.34L() + -0.11M() + 0.93S()
![Page 38: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Opponent Processing Opponent Processing ModelModel
![Page 39: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Falsification (finally)Falsification (finally)• In 1977, Edwin Land produced a
falsification:The particular relationship between the stimulus of the L, M and S cones is both NECESSARY and SUFFICIENT for determining a particular color sensation. (Given trichromatic perceivers and normal conditions)
Helmholtz
(sufficiency) Produce a case where two objects stimulate the L, M and S cones in exactly the same way, but produce two different color sensations(necessity) Produce a case where two objects stimulate the L, M and S cones in different ways, yet produce the same color sensation.
Two falsifications required:
![Page 40: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
MondriansMondrians
5.8 (L)3.2 (M)1.6 (S)
These values held for red, green and blue patches, yet the patches still appeared red, green and blue!
5.8 (L)3.2 (M)1.6 (S)
![Page 41: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Tristimulus values Tristimulus values sufficient for color sufficient for color
appearanceappearanceAccording to the Helmholtz theory, IF objects reflect the same tristimulus values, THEN they will appear to be the same color.
A patch in the first Mondrian reflects the tristimulus values of 5.8(L), 3.2 (M) and 1.6 (S), yet looks red.A patch in the second Mondrian reflects the tristimulus values of 5.8(L), 3.2 (M) and 1.6 (S), yet looks blue.
(from 1) IF the Helmholtz theory is correct, THEN the patch in the first Mondrian will appear to be the same color as the patch in the second Mondrian.They do NOT appear to be the same color.
THEREFORE, the Helmholtz theory is NOT correct.
![Page 42: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Tristimulus values Tristimulus values necessary for color necessary for color
appearanceappearanceAccording to the Helmholtz theory, IF two objects appear to be the same color, THEN they will reflect the same tristimulus values.
Before Land turned the projectors on, the red patch looks red.
After Land turned the projectors on, the red patch looks red.
(from 1) IF the Helmholtz theory is correct, THEN the patch that continues to look red must reflect the same tristimulus values when the projectors are on & off.
The patch that continues to look red does NOT reflect the same tristimulus values when the projectors are on as it does when they are off.
THEREFORE, the Helmholtz theory is NOT correct.
![Page 43: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Helmholtz’ responseHelmholtz’ response(from 1) IF the Helmholtz theory is correct, THEN the patch that continues to look red must reflect the same tristimulus values when the projectors are on & off.
The patch looks red w/ the projector OFF and it reflects tristimulus values x, y, z
THEREFORE, the Helmholtz theory is NOT correct.
The patch looks red w/ the projector ON and it reflects tristimulus values a, b, c
BUT: One cannot draw conclusions about the physiology of color from this fact, so…
The patch looks red w/ the projectors OFF, but it is really isn’t. (or vice versa)
![Page 44: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
TimelineTimeline
1856: Helmholtz proposes his theory
1892: Christine Ladd-Franklin formulates her argument.
1957: Theory change following Jameson & Hurvich
1977: Land’s Falsification
64 years! 20 years
1908: Gestalts.
![Page 45: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Why Theory Change?Why Theory Change?
• New Technology (Galileo's Telescope)
• Socio-cultural factors (Ladd-Franklin)
• Mathematics (Jameson & Hurvich)
![Page 46: Basic Scientific Reasoning 4/25/2007. What is Science? Astrology Psychoanalysis Physics Psychophysics Mathematics Phrenology Biology Psychology Scientology](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062805/5697bff71a28abf838cbe845/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Alternatives for Alternatives for DemarcationDemarcation
1. Verification2. Falsification3. Lakatos’ ‘Progressive v.
Degenerative’4. Sociological factors5. Explanation in terms of
mechanism.