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• Sexual CycleSexual Cycle– new plants arise from the fusion of parental gametesnew plants arise from the fusion of parental gametes– development from seedsdevelopment from seeds– plants propagated by seeds are not clonesplants propagated by seeds are not clones– resultant plant has unique genetic make-up; different resultant plant has unique genetic make-up; different
from either parent and other offspringfrom either parent and other offspring
• Asexual or Vegetative CycleAsexual or Vegetative Cycle– genes copied exactly at each mitotic divisiongenes copied exactly at each mitotic division– genetic make-up of resultant plant identical to that of genetic make-up of resultant plant identical to that of
the parent and other offspringthe parent and other offspring– Common, allowing them to survive habitats Common, allowing them to survive habitats – Independent of pollinating vectorsIndependent of pollinating vectors
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Angiosperm Life Cycle
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Natural Cloning
stolon
rhizome
corm
tuber bulb
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KalanchoeKalanchoe
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Vegetatively – propagated crops
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Alternative Propagation Method: Tissue culture
In an effort to increase productivity, alternative propagation methods have been developed.
Plant PropagationPlant Propagation
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Vegetative propagation of importance to agriculture, horticulture and forestry since it provides:
1.For the production of uniform material for crop planting,
2.For the multiplication of good quality or superior trees, ornamentals, vegetables etc.
Plant PropagationPlant Propagation
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The term “tissue culture” is an inclusive name for both organ and cell culture.
Plant tissue culture the growing of isolated plant parts aseptically, on appropriate media and a whole new plant can be produced.Utilizes growth of small pieces of tissue or small organs in sterile or aseptic conditions
“in vitro” techniques ((literally means “in a glass”
PTCPTC
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Totipotency of Plant CellsTotipotency of Plant Cells
Plant cells possess profound ability to Plant cells possess profound ability to show their full genetic potential and show their full genetic potential and follow a developmental pathway similar follow a developmental pathway similar to that of the zygote resulting in the to that of the zygote resulting in the formation of a new plant.formation of a new plant.
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PTCPTC
• Demonstration of totipotency of plant Demonstration of totipotency of plant cellscells
– Ability of the differentiated cell to revert Ability of the differentiated cell to revert to its undifferentiated state and form all to its undifferentiated state and form all parts of a mature organism parts of a mature organism
– Similar to the ability of a zygote to Similar to the ability of a zygote to generate a complete plantgenerate a complete plant
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Genomic equivalenceGenomic equivalence Different kinds of somatic cells in Different kinds of somatic cells in
organisms all have the same genesorganisms all have the same genes
Differences between cells in a Differences between cells in a multicellular organism come from multicellular organism come from differences in gene expressiondifferences in gene expression
PTCPTC
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DNA
Primary RNA transcript
proteininactive mRNA
Inactive protein
mRNA degradation control
Translational control by ribosome selection among mRNAs
Protein activity control
Transcriptional control
1
2 Processing control
3 Transport control
mRNA
mRNA
6
4 5
Steps at which gene expression can be controlled in eukaryotes
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
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Tissue cultureTissue culture
• Technique for maintaining plant Technique for maintaining plant tissues indefinitely on an artificial tissues indefinitely on an artificial mediummedium
subcultured
Callus
Callus
undifferentiated
roots
redifferentiation shoots
Somatic embryos
organogenesis
Somatic
embryogenesis
subcultured
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For rapid vegetative propagation of plants
For production and extraction of valuable secondary metabolites rather than directly from plants grown in the wild
APPLICATIONS
PTCPTC
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PTCPTC
*For conservation of biodiversity and genetic *For conservation of biodiversity and genetic resourcesresources
*For elimination of some diseases in plants, *For elimination of some diseases in plants, particularly those caused by virusesparticularly those caused by viruses
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• Micropropagation- large scale cloning of Micropropagation- large scale cloning of plant speciesplant species– Meristem cultureMeristem culture
•Propagation of rare speciesPropagation of rare species
•Pathogen - free propagulesPathogen - free propagules– Sometimes exhibits somaclonal Sometimes exhibits somaclonal
variationvariation
Uses of biotechnologyUses of biotechnology
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• Crop improvementCrop improvement
– Salt toleranceSalt tolerance
– Insect resistanceInsect resistance
– Herbicide resistance Herbicide resistance
•e.g Brassica campestris herbicide resistance e.g Brassica campestris herbicide resistance into Brassica napusinto Brassica napus
Uses of biotechnologyUses of biotechnology
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Two major underlying principles 1. The necessity to isolate the
plant part from the intact plants 2. The need to provide the appropriate
environment in which the isolated plant part can express its intrinsic or induced potential through the use of a suitable culture media and their proper culture conditions.
Initiating Tissue Culture
PTCPTC
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Explant and Explant Sources
Pieces of whole plants, small organ itself or pieces of tissue from stems, leaves, ovules, seeds, buds, inflorescence. The part of the plant from which explants are obtained depends on :
1. Type of culture to be initiated2. Purpose of the proposed culture3. Plant species to be used
PTCPTC
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PTCPTC
SterilizationBiggest preoccupation of a plant tissue culturist is how to prevent contamination of the culture. Presence of microorganisms in cultures results in loss of time, energy and money.
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PTCPTC
Duration of surface sterilization is important:
Too long: plant tissue will be damagedToo short: will not destroy the microorganisms Usually: ca. 20 minutes in 5% calcium hypochlorite and 5-15 minutes in 0.5- 1.0 % sodium hypochlorite
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PTCPTC
Cultural Factors
Sterile operations are conducted within a laminar flow cabinet. With a laminar flow cabinet air taken from outside of the hood is forced through a dust filter and then the filtered air which passed through a high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter is blown in a very smooth laminar flow towards the user or out of the workplace.
The filters can remove up to 99.97% of dust, pollen, molds, bacteria and other airborne particles as small as 0.3 microns.
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Cultural Factors Explants are put into a sterilized nutrient medium.It is absolutely necessary to maintain a sterile environment during the culture of plant tissues.
PTCPTC
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PTCPTCCulture medium
• The components of a plant tissue culture The components of a plant tissue culture medium include:medium include:– Macronutrients- provide C,N,P,K, Ca, Mg Macronutrients- provide C,N,P,K, Ca, Mg
and Sand S– Micronutrients in trace amounts- Mn, Cu, Micronutrients in trace amounts- Mn, Cu,
Zn, Mo, CoZn, Mo, Co– Iron supplementIron supplement– VitaminsVitamins– Carbon sourceCarbon source– Plant growth regulatorsPlant growth regulators
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Plant growth regulators
The growth regulator requirements for most callus cultures are some combinations of auxins and cytokinins. They are organic substances which are active at very low concentrations (10-5 to 10-9 M), can elicit profound cellular changes influencing plant development.
PTCPTC
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Classes of plant growth substances:
1. Auxins.2. Cytokinins3. Gibberellins4. Ethylene5. Abscissic acid6. Brassinosteroids
Auxins and cytokinins are the most important for regulating growth and morphogenesis in plant tissue culture
PTCPTC
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Auxin/cytokinin interactionAuxin/cytokinin interaction
auxinhigh
low
cytokinin
high
lowRoot formation from
shoot
Adventitious root formation from callus
Callus induction in dicotyledons
Adventitious shoot formation
Axillary shoot proliferation
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Fern spore germination in a plant tissue culture system
Lilian B. Ungson, Ph.D Professorial Lecturer
Institute of Biology
U. P. Diliman, Quezon City
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Fern Life Cycle
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Platycerium
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Asplenium musifoliumAsplenium musifolium
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Adiantum sp.(Maiden Hair Fern)
Adiantum
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Cyathea contaminans(Tree Fern)
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Cyathea contaminans(Tree Fern)
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Cyathea contaminans(Tree Fern)
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Christella
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Christella
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Fern for experimental studies• Ease of culture of using gametophytes
at different stages of development•Spores and gametophytes are small, can be
cultured in petri dishes•Large populations can produce data which
can be subjected to statistical analysis
•Advantages derived from the intrinsic features of fern life cycle
• Single-celled nature of the spore• Spore germinates to form cells destined for different fates• Growth of gametophytes as a single layer of cells
for study of cell division patterns• Growth of the filamentous structure • Formation of sex organs in response to hormonal signals
•ls
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Spore culture in a plant tissue culture system
Raghavan in 1993 said that fern haplophase is not considered as a tissue culture system in the accepted sense of the terminology (Raghavan 1993): plant tissue culture is a collection of techniques used to grow
explants on formulated media for induction of growth, differentiation, and regeneration of organs or whole organisms.
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•Cells dedifferentiate in tissue culture and can give rise to the diverse cell types, thus it possess all the genes necessary to make any kind of plant cell.
Carrot cell culture
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The fern gametophyte stageshas its origin in a single cell like the carrot cell culture.
Comparisons madebetween molecular changesassociated with differentiationof the carrot cell and germi-nation of the fern spore andform changes in the fern gametophyte are germane(Raghavan 1993).
Germination of pollen and germination of fern sporesboth involve activation of growth and induction of metabolicactivities in dormant systems
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Each sorus has a •central axis to which the sporangia are attached;
• Indusium-covering underneath the sporangia,
• Annulus –thick-walled ring of cells around each sporangium .The annulus is hygroscopic
Fern leaf with sorus
indusiumAnnuluS
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Annulus=thick-walledplate or transverseband or ring that extendaround thecircumference of the sporangium
Function in spore release
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Spore patch
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Platycerium coronarium
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Spores inside the sporangiumSpores inside the sporangium
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Internal condition of the spore• Freshly released spores are immature
• Need to complete series of cytological and biochemical changes for maturation and germination
• Cytological changes ensure formation and orderly rearrangement of organelles
• Maturation is due to the endogenous synthesis of a variety of molecules.
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Cytological changes during maturation of spore Onoclea
a. Beginning of vacuolation. during spore enlargementb. Nucleus at one end of
sporec. Spore enlargement
accompanied by decrease in cytoplasm
d. Enlargement of nucleus prior to dev of proplastids. e. First appearance of
proplastids around nucleusf. Continued dev of
proplastidsg. Mature spore with central nucleus and numerous
chloroplasts
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SPORE- represents the beginning of the haploid or gametophytic phase
Nucleus with dehydratedchromatin
Dormant spore
Storage granules
Storage granules have tobe degraded into simplecompounds to provideenergy and substratesfor germinationNeed for synthesis ofnucleic acids Need for biogenesis of organelles e.g. mitochondria for catabolic activity of food reserves and chloroplasts for initiating photosynthesisHistochemical observation: most storage granules disappear within 24 to 36 hours after germination
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Chloroplast movement and origin of polarity in germinating spores
a. Unpolarized spore showing uniform
distribution of chloroplast around
nucleus.b. Beginning of
polarized move- ment of chloroplasts
away from site of presumptive
rhizoid initial.c. Spore nucleus in
mitosis to form the rhizoid initial
d. Formation of the rhizoid initial
( arrow)
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Germination of spores
nucleus
Cell wallformation delimitingrhizoid initial
rhizoid initial Elongated rhizoid
Protonemainitial
A
B
C
C rhizoid breaking out of exine
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An asymmetric cell division is the cytological hallmark of germination of fern spores
The development potential of the spore is parceled out to 2 cells which pursue divergent differentiation pathways.
rhizoid initial-- small & lens-shaped, elongates into 1. narrow colorless rhizoid. 2. large cell divides again by a wall perpendicular
to the first to form an isodiametric cell called protonema initial with many
chloroplasts
Appearing tip of the nascent rhizoid initial –first visible sign of germination
Spore germination
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Section of germinated spore of Polypodium vulgare
Protonema initial
Rhizoid initial
The basal wall of the rhizoid is in contact with the protonema initial and the spore cell
Spore cell with a large mass of lipid bodies
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Germinated spore of Blechnum spicant to show relationship between rhizoid and protonema initial
Protonema initial
Rhizoid initial
nucleus
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Whole mounts of germinating spores of Onoclea sensibilis
A. Asymmetric division delimiting the rhizoid.B. Elongation of the rhizoidC.Formation of the protonemal initial
Germination of the spore -a process of change from a dormant unicell to a pair of morphologically and functionally different cells
A
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Rhizoid initial growth is tip growthSimilar to pollen tube
it is a cell that grows by apical extension like pollen tubesand root hair
programmed for terminal differentiation, does not normally divide after it is cut off
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A. Tip domain- rich in Golgi vesicles B. Sub-apical domain- with metabolically active organelles: mitochondria, dictyosomes, ER, vesiclesC. Nuclear domain: large organelles and male germ unitD. Vacuolar domain. Enlarges as the tube grows.
Pollen tube
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Rhizoid
Protonemal initial
Ungerminated spore
Rhizoid initial
Filamentous protonema
Spore Germination
Gives riseto green leafy gametophyte
Programmedfor terminaldifferentiation
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Rhizoid initial
Nucleus is confined to the base of a newly-cutrhizoid initialSurrounded by a chloro- plasts, mitochondria, ribo-Somes, Golgi, ER, vesicles,
Extensive vacuolation- associated with elongationChloroplasts degenerate , lose integrity of their thylakoid membraneEscape of starch grains.
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Protonemal initial
Progenitor of the prothallusDistinctive feature is abundant chloroplasts
Cytoplasm is filled with much lipid bodies, protein granules and chloroplasts.Divides by walls perpendicular to the long axis to produce a filament.
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Formation of protonema
A
B
C
A. early stage, formalmost identicalcells
B. Division in both cells to form filaments
C. Initiation of planar growth in both filaments
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A B
Rhizoid initiation in the presence of actinomycin DRhizoid initiation
Basal medium without actinomycin DNormal germination
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Stored mRNA
In seeds and fungal spores, there is stored template mRNA carry codes for the first proteins of germination
Hypothesis: fern spores also contain stored mRNA. Believed that sufficient mRNA translatable into proteins is stored in the spore as a holdover from sporogenesis
To test hypothesis: use of antibiotic actinomycin D (known to inhibit mRNA synthesis)
Ground rule established: if a stage of germination proceeded in the presence of actinomycin D in the medium, the event was probably independent of synthesis of NEW mRNA
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Start of Planar Morphology
Prothallial Development
Filamentous growth: Protonemal initial formed by division of transverse walls
Planar morphology: by rapidburst of transverse and longitudinal divisions
Rhizoid-programmedfor terminal differentiation
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Gametophytes of Asplenium showing longitudinal division of the terminal cells
Formation of the planar gametophyte due to activity of single terminal cells.
Ist div is oblique or longitu- dinal
Followed by partition at right angles to the first producing a group of three cells. Center cell (wedge-shaped) functions as the meristematic apical cell
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Planar growth in producing a prothallus
a. Filamentous protonema, b. ist longitudinal div of terminal cell
c. Formation of a wall at right angles to the first division wall
d. Spatulate plate is formed by repeated oblique or longitudinal divisions with left-right alternation of cell plate orientation
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Prothallus development- how heart-shape is attained
At first apical cell appears as a small indentation at tip of spatulate plate. (d, e)
Later, the two sides extend horizontally assuming a heart-shape form and meristematic cell is lodged in the notch between the two lobes.(e, f, g)
During further expansion of the lobes, the apical cell divides transversely (f,g,)
Division of anterior cell by two or three cell walls parallel to each other (g,H)
Meristematic cellApical cell divides transversely
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Germination of fern spores and development of gametophyte
Rhizoid develops from basal cellProthallial cell may divide transversely several times to form a filamentPlate of cells is formed by longitudinal divisionsGrowth becomes active along forward margins of the thallus which results in formation of two wings.
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Assuming a heart-shaped structure – Prothallus
(Fern Gametophyte)
Prothallial Development
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Mature ProthallusMature Prothallus
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Sex organs on gametophytes
When antheridial development precede archegonia, antheridia are confined to ventral surface behind the apical notch of the prothallus
Antheridia may be scattered over the entire prothallial surface or confined to the margins of the prothallus
When both sex organs develop at the same time, there is competition for space , nutrients and other resources. Antheridia are confined to the midrib region in the posterior half and archegonia to the anterior region of the midrib
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Sex organs on gametophytes
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Development of antheridium (A,B) and archegonium (C-H)
Primary spermatogenous orandrogonial cells divide several times to form androcytes then transformed into spermatozoids
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Mature antheridium with sperms forming in spermatogenous cells
Mature sperm – large, coiled and ciliated
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A. Archegonial initial divided intoinner and outer cell and outer celldivided anticl to form 2 neck cells
B. Formation of central cell and basal cell from the inner cell.
C. Div of central cell into ventral celland neck canal cell
D. Division of neck canal cell
E. Nearly mature archegonium withegg, ventral canal cell and binucleate neck canal cell
F. Archegonium with egg ready for fertilization
E
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Day 7Rhizoid and protonema
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Day 9Rhizoid and protonema
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Day 14 Young prothallus
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Day 49 Sporophyte on gametophyte
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Day 42Development ofantheridia
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Fern culture Day 65
Sporophytes on drying gametophyte
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Sporophytes on gametophytes
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Areas for further investigation .
1. Response of spores to light quality and chemicals has many similarities with behaviour of seeds.
2. Distinct regulatory processes in fern spore germination may give evidences of additional control mechanisms that are already established during seed germination.
3. To find out the mechanism of development in a dormant system at the cellular level of initiation
4. During the development of spores, they require significant amounts of proteins for storage, and for surviving adverse conditions. What strategy do spores use to produce these required amounts of proteins which are in large quantities.
5. What is the trigger that will turn prothallial cells into archegonia or antheridia
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References
Raghavan, V. 1989. Developmental Biology of Fern Gametophytes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Raghavan, V. Cellular and molecular biology of fern haplophase development. In:Komamine, A., H.
Fukuda, U. Sankawa, Y. Komeda and K. Syono. 1993. Cellular and Molecular Biology in Plant Cell Cultures. Journal of Plant Research Special Issue No. 3. The Botanical Society of Japan, Tokyo
Reece, R. , L. Urry, M. Cain, S. Wasserman, P. Minorsky, and R. Jackson. 2011. Campbell Biology.