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PENDLE HILL PAM PHLET 2
A Religious SolutionTo The Social Problem
How ard H. Brinton
PEND LE HILL PUBLICATIONS
WALLINGFORD, PENNSYLVANIA
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
A Relig ious Solu tio n To The Social Prob lem2
Pu blish ed 1 93 4 by Pen dle Hill
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR Howard H.Brinton, Ph.D., Professor of
Religion , Mills College; Actin g Direc tor , Pen dle Hill, 19 34-35 .
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
A Relig ious Solu tio n To The Social Prob lem3
A religious solution to the social problem involves an
an swer to two prelim in a ry qu estion s wha t social problem
ar e we attem pt in g to solve an d wh a t religion do we offer a s
a solut ion? Since rel igion has assumed a wide variety of
forms it will be necessary, if we are to simplify and clarify
our approach, to adopt at the outset a defini te rel igious
viewpoint. To define our premises as those of Christianity
in genera l i s no t suf f i c ien t ly expl ic i t because h i s tor ic
Ch ristian ity ha s i tself as su m ed a wide variety of form s. For
the purpose of the present under taking I shal l approach
ou r p rob lem from th e origin a l poin t of view of th e Society of
F r iends , which , in many ways , resembled tha t of ea r ly
Chris t iani ty . Such an approach need not imply a narrow
s e c t a r i a n v i e w . E a r l y Q u a k e r i s m e x h i b i t e d c e r t a i n
characteris t ics common to many rel igious movements in
their ini t ia l creat ive periods. Later Quakerism has shared
th e fat e of oth er m ovem en ts in failin g to car ry on th e idea ls
of th e fou n der s. As for th e socia l pr oblem for wh ich we seek
a s olu t ion, it is th e fu n da m ent al dilemm a ou t of which m ost
present -day soc ia l p roblems a r i se . S ta ted as br ie f ly as
possible, w e s eek a remed y for exces s ive ind ividu alis m , and
w e require of this rem ed y that it sh all at the s am e tim e res pect
the h ard-w on rights of the ind ivid ua l.
The paradoxical character of this s tatement suggests
th at , if th ere be a s olu t ion, it m ay tu rn ou t to be a rel igiou s
on e, for religion feeds on pa ra dox. No m erely logica l sch em e,
ba sed wholly on s cien ce an d r eas on , will, it is p roba ble, do
more than submerge the individual through some sor t of
mechanical collectivism. Religion at i ts highest and most
creat ive s ta ge is , we sh a ll fin d, t h e on e s olven t for excess ive
in dividu alism wh ich a t th e sam e t im e en h an ces th e respect
for in dividu al p ers on a lity.
To ass u m e th at th e problem h as a re ligious solu t ion i s
n ot, h owever, t o offer a su bs titu te for econ om ic, sociological,
polit ical, or p sych ological an alysis a n d plan n in g. A bu ilder
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
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wh o u ses s team -driven m ach in ery does n ot claim th at s team
alon e can bu ild a h ou se or a b ridge. Obvious ly, ma th ema tical
calculat ion, materials , tools , and ski l led workers are also
n eeded. By sim ila r token th e religiou s th in ker d oes n ot cla im
th a t religion a lon e can reform ou r s ocial order. It p rovides
power, not tools, nor blueprints. Many a social reformer
toda y is like a bu ilder wh o orders work ah ead at fu ll sp eed,
while th e fires a re goin g ou t u n der h is b oilers. We ar e seeking
a wa y to rekin dle th ose fires .
The Primit ive Christian Solut ion
Th e primitive Christian com m u n ity wh en it m et togeth er
for wors h ip was like a n early Qu ak er m eetin g in th e freedom
with which various members exercised their gif ts and in
t h e a b s e n c e o f a s e r v i c e p r o g r a m m e d i n a d v a n c e a n d
domin ated throu gh out by r itu al an d h u m an leadersh ip. Th is
is s h own in Pau ls s o-called firs t letter to th e Corint h ian s.
In both early Quakerism and early Chris t iani ty rel igious
grou ps were form ed whose ind ividu al mem bers were fu sed
togeth er a s fire fu ses m etals, b y a livin g in fu sion of th e Sp irit.
No outer mechanical bond was necessary. The coming of
th e Spirit was in deed t h e grea t m ira cle of ear ly Ch ristian ity.
Th e Lead er h a d dep ar ted in th e flesh , leavin g His followers
forlorn an d s cat tered. Su dd enly in th e flam es of Pen tecost
He had re tu rn ed seekin g fresh in carn at ion in th e body of
th e Ch u rch . At th e begin n in g it was th e person al leaders h ip
of J esu s which h eld His followers togeth er. Now a n ew tie of
a differen t s ort was form ed. Even tu ally this p erm eative bon d
held every Chris t ian community from Jerusalem to Rome.
It cam e m ost vividly to con sciou sn ess in th e agape or love
feast; a comm on m eal pa rtak en of reveren tly in remem bra n ce
of th e Las t Su pp er. Congregat ion s b ecam e u n ited with each
other a n d with th eir Lead er in a livin g organ ic com m u n ion.
Chr i s t i ans of the f i r s t genera t ion , says Dr . S t ree te r ,
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
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trou bled th em selves little a bou t th e th eory eith er of doctrine
or of Church Order. . . . The most vivid fact of present
exper ien ce was th e ou tp ou rin g of th e Sp irit. (Primitive
Christianity , p. 73.)
In th e early Ch ris t ian m eetin g for wors h ip, th e Spirit
exercised th e sa m e fu n ct ion th a t th e sou l exerc ises in th e
body; it u n ited a n d coordina ted th e u n its of which th e wh ole
was com posed. By a n atu ra l process th e doct r in e arose tha t
th e chu rch was th e m ystical body of Ch ris t . Th e God of ou r
Lord J esu s Ch ris t , writes Pa u l, gave Him to be th e h ead
over a ll th in gs to th e chu rch which is His body, the fu lln ess
of Him that filleth all in all. (Ephesians I: 22,23). Man is
s a v e d , t h e r e f o r e , n o t t h r o u g h a n e x t e r n a l h i s t o r i c a l
t ran sa ct ion, as h as been declared in m an y Protestan t creeds,
bu t th rou gh th e Spirit of Ch ris t ins pir in g an d u n ifyin g th e
Chu rch . Salvat ion accordin gly becom es a social process in
wh ich th e group takes pa r t . It is n ot merely a t ra n sa ct ion
between God an d isolated in dividu als .
Sin is es tra n gem en t. Th e in dividu al in h im self is lon ely
a n d i n c o m p l e t e . H e i s s a v e d , t h a t i s , h i s i s o l a t i o n i s
overcom e, by fin ding a n d being fou n d by a greater Life wh ich
unites him at once with Itself and with his fellows. This
Life, he feels, does not come up from the biological level
below, like th e life of th e b ody. It p oss ess es a sp ecial qu a lity
wher eby it is r ecogn ized a s d ivin e an d com in g from a bove.
Only the upward glance senses i t . I t s presence f i l l s the
worshiper with awe and reverence. It creates new life in
h im an d n ew life in th e grou p. It is th e sa m e creat ive sp ir it ,
which has always brooded over the world, bringing order
out of chaos. Without Him was not anything made that
h at h been m ad e. In Him was l ife an d th e life was th e Ligh t
of m en .
Th e centr al doctr in e of th e great Ch u rch of th e Midd le
Ages held tha t man is saved in and through a Chris t ian
Society wh ich is th e bod y of Ch rist in sp ired by His Sp irit . In
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th e ha n ds of th eologian s a n d p r ies ts i t becam e mech an ized
and was given a r i tual is t ic interpretat ion. But the Church
n ever forgot th at Chr ist was pres en t in His h ou se of worsh ip.
His presence was real ized in the sacrament of the Mass.
Nor was it forgotten th a t fellow Ch ristia n s cou ld con tribu te
to on e an others s alvat ion, th ou gh on ly a sh ad ow of th e early
belief rem ained in th e doctrin e tha t sin n ers m igh t h ave som e
share in the abounding meri t of the sa ints . The Cathol ic
Chu rch h as developed, m ore direct ly tha n is often real ized,
i n unbroken con t inu i ty ou t o f t he p r imi t i ve Chr i s t i an
Church .
T h e r e a r e m a n y w a y s b y w h i c h a n a g g r e g a t e o f
in dividu als ca n overcom e excess of in dividu a lity in its pa rts
an d be u n ited a s a whole. Th e mea n s m ay be biological, as
in th e fam ily an d th e t r ibe; they ma y be econ omic, as in th e
t r a d e u n i o n o r b u s i n e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n ; o r t h e y m a y b e
polit ical, as in the state. There is , however, as history hasrepeated ly sh own , no m ore dyna m ic nor effectu al mean s of
socia l in tegration th an th a t wh ich we call religiou s. Th e roots
of th e Ch u rch go deeper th an th e roots of fam ily, of s ta te , or
of an y other t ype of h u m an organ izat ion . Th e early Ch u rch
was a rel igiously integrated group bound together by an
invisible presence in the midst. The individuality of each
part was not thereby canceled out; rather i t was l i f ted upin to som ething high er, th rou gh wh ich th e ess ential pu rpose
of each in dividu al was fu lfilled. Ou t of th is h igher u n ity in
the Spirit , the lower types of organization were generated,
in c lu din g th e econ omic . Th e Ch u rch a t J eru sa lem a cted a t
firs t like on e la rge fa m ily. Th e com m u n ism in wh ich it began
was soon given u p, bu t th ere rem ained a con siderable degree
of economic in te rdependence . The poor were ca re fu l ly
provided for. Th e fact t h at other types of worsh ip a n d ch u rch
organizat ion soon superceded this original community of
sp irit on a b a sis of dem ocrat ic equ ality before God d oes n ot
d e t r a c t f r o m i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e a s a n i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l
phenomenon.
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The Early Quaker Solution
E a r l y Q u a k e r i s m w e n t e v e n f u r t h e r t h a n e a r l y
Chr is t ian ity in its d epen den ce on a p u rely spir itu al type of
u n ity. Bapt ism was given u p becau se it was an u n n ecessary
extern al ad dit ion to an in n er sp ir itu al reality. Th ere is s ome
evidence tha t the agape or love feas t occurred in some
primit ive Qu ak er grou ps ,1 bu t qu ite early an d gen eral ly th e
su pp er of th e Lord was celebra ted wh olly in s i len t s pir itu al
com m u n ion. Th e Qu ak er m eetin g was a r eligiou sly in tegra ted
group . Th ere was n o bon d bu t th e Spir it , no creed bu t th a t
which ca m e fresh an d u pwellin g from th e Etern al Foun tain
of Tru th . Th e u n it was n ot the in dividu al bu t th e meetin g,
for i t was the sense of the meeting and not the sense of
th e in dividu al wh ich determ in ed th e cou rse of act ion .
As in ea rly Ch ris t ian ity, th e h igh er u n ity genera ted th e
lower types. Th ere was in ea rly Qu ak erism a large degree of
economic interdependence; the poor, the s ick and the
persecuted were ca re fu l ly looked a f te r by the mee t ing .
Fran cis Howgill th u s describes th e n atu re of th e bon d wh ich
u n ited th e early Qu ak er m eetin gs: Th e Lord a pp eared da ily
t o u s , t o o u r a s t o n i s h m e n t , a m a z e m e n t , a n d g r e a t
adm ira t ion , in somu ch th at we often sa id one u n to an other
with grea t joy of h ea rt : Wh a t? Is th e Kin gdom of God com e
to be with m en ? An d from th at da y forwar d ou r h earts were
kn it u n to th e Lord an d u n to one an other in t r u e an d fervent
love, not b y an y extern al covena n t or extern al form, b u t we
ent ered in to th e coven an t of life with God, a n d th at was a
str ong obligat ion or bond u pon al l ou r sp ir its wh ich u n ited
u s o n e u n t o a n o t h e r . ( T e s t i m o n y c o n c e r n i n g E d w a r d
Burrough. )
Th e Qu ak er doctr in e of th e In n er Ligh t h as som etim es
been interpreted as an extreme form of religious individ-
u alism . Th is s eem s a t firs t s igh t to be a n atu ra l dedu ct ion.
If m an h as a Ligh t with in , h e is , b y this view, in depen den t
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of Church, Book, and Socie ty in his search for t ruth and
salvation. He is subject to no law outside himself, for his
f i na l au thor i t y i s an Inne r Gu ide . Th i s i nd iv idua l i s t i c
interpretat ion has arisen part ly from the mistaken bel ief
that Quakerism is the extreme left wing of Protestant ism
an d th e resu lt of Protesta n t d octr in es ca rried to th eir logical
conc lus ion . Accord ing t o t h i s v i ew , P ro t e s t an t i s m, i n
abolish in g th e Ch u rch a s a m ean s of sa lvat ion, su bs t i tuted
a d irect relat ion between m an an d God. Fearfu l, h owever,
of th e an ar chy resu lt in g from so extrem e an in dividu al ism ,
Protesta n t ism sou gh t for a m ean s of extern al con trol which
i t found ready a t hand in Bible and in creed. Quaker ism,
h owever, did n ot retreat . It p laced its whole depen den ce on
a direct relat ion with th e God Wh om it fou n d with in . Creed,
Bible , and r i tua l were dispensed wi th and re l igion was
reduced to pure interiori ty. Quakerism, according to such
an in terpreta t ion, is s im plicity. By a process of su btra ct ion
i t has el iminated al l that is inst i tut ional , r i tual is t ic , and
h is tor ica l an d h as th u s carr ied Protes tan t in dividu alism to
its logica l con clu sion .
There was, indeed, a Reformation Group in England
which fol lowed this pa th, but i t was not the Socie ty of
Friends. The Ranters , with whom George Fox had many
vigorou s dispu tes , declar ed th at everyone wh o con sidered
h im self in sp ired b y the Inn er Ligh t was a law u n to h im self.
To ha ve God with in was to be God an d s o becom e in capa ble
of sin or err or. Fox den ied t h e Ca lvin ist ic doctr in e of tota l
depravity, but he as vigorously denied this easy means of
at taining perfect ion. In his Journal , Fox relates that the
learned Jus t ice Hotham said to him that i f God had not
raised up this principle of l ight and l i fe which he, Fox,
p r e a c h e d , t h e n a t i o n w o u l d h a v e b e e n o v e r r u n w i t h
Ran terism . Th ere was , h owever, a Ran ter pa rty in th e early
Society of Frien d s. 2 Wh en a form of chu rch govern m en t was
s e t up t h rough mee t ings fo r bus ines s , t he re r e s u l t ed a
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
A Relig ious Solu tio n To The Social Prob lem9
separat ion on the part of some who bel ieved in a purely
in dividu al form of gu ida n ce. Th is wa s t h e Wilkin son -Story
separ a t ion of 167 6.
Th e Society of Frien ds took th e position t h at th e sou rce
of gu ida n ce was n ot m erely an in dividu al ligh t b u t th e sen se
of the meeting, in other words a communal l ight . This
com m u n al ligh t wh ich i llu m in ed th e grou p was rea ch ed in
a spir i t of worship through which each individual aspired
to a s u per-individu a l level of rea lity wher e all in d ividu a l ligh ts
m erged in to one. It is d ifficu lt to m ak e th is p rocess clear to
anyone who has not ac tua l ly exper ienced i t . Ind iv idua l
ins ight i s not suppressed, but ra ther i t i s expanded into
som eth in g high er an d m ore in clu sive, ju st a s a view gained
from th e foothills is n ot den ied, bu t fu lfilled a n d in terp reted
by th e view from th e m ou n ta in top. Th e in dividu al view m a y
n o t b e w h o l l y i n e r r o r . I t i s s i m p l y f r a g m e n t a r y a n d
incomplete. The individual, provided, of course, that he is
in the t rue spir i t of a worship which orients him toward
som eth in g high er th an h im self, fin ds h im self sa yin g in th e
end , th at is ju st wh at I real ly m ean t bu t did not qu ite see
clearly.
Dean Inge says that Quakerism is an individual is t ic
m ysticism (Th e Social Teach in g of th e Ch u rch , p. 21 ), bu t
Troeltsch is r igh t in as sert ing th at th e Qu ak ers overcam e
th e na tu ra l an t isocial or ra th er in dividu al is t ic ten den cy of
m ysticism . (Th e Social Teach in gs of th e Ch ristian Ch u rch es,
Vol. II, p. 7 00 ). Th e grou p m eth od of ar rivin g at conclu sions
is th e on e u n ique con t r ibu t ion wh ich Qu aker ism ha s m ade
to Chris t ian thought and pract ice. Trevelyan (History of
England, p. 431) says that George Fox made at least the
most original contribution to the history of religion of any
Eng l i s hman . The Quake r me thod i s more t han j us t a
process of grou p th in kin g su ch as is d escribed in some recent
books .3 I t is a group thinking where God is present in the
group. Groups of ten tend to sag below the level of the
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
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individuals of which they are composed. But the divine
presence insures an integrat ion on a higher level . A mob
can be fu sed in to u n ity by looking down ward to th e in fra -
h u m an in st inct ive level. A Qu ak er m eetin g aim s to become
u ni ted by lookin g u pward to the su pra -hu m an , tha t is to
som eth in g high er th an an y on e in dividu al or a n y collect ion
of in dividu a ls.
Th is is n ot a dem ocra t ic m eth od in th e na rrow sens e
of th at term , for th ere is n o dom in at ion of a m ajority over a
m in ority. If a good d egree of u n ity is n ot rea ch ed, n o action
is ta ken . It som etim es h ap pen s, of cou rse, tha t an in dividu al
who disa grees will eith er su bm it a s b est h e can or follow h is
own guidance a t a l l cos ts . More of ten he f inds tha t the
conclusion arr ived at expresses his own deepest insight .
The search for uni ty is not a search for a compromise nor
for the greatest common divisor of a number of diverse
opinions . I t comes ra ther as an integra t ion in which the
par t s a re not overbou rne , bu t t ran sm u ted in to someth in g
more complete, just as oxygen and hydrogen in unit ing to
form wat er ar e n ot destroyed, bu t t ra n sformed . Th is figu re
can be car ried fu rth er. As in t h e com bina t ion of oxygen an d
hydrogen energy i s re leased which can cu t th rough the
st ron gest st eel; so a grou p of pers on s if it be a ble to a rrive
at a h igh er u n ity genera tes a s piritu al en ergy which b ecom es
availab le for in calcu lab le pra ct ical u se in th e world a rou n d.
The H istory Of The Social Problem
Th e s ign ifican ce an d ch ar acter of th is Qu ak er m eth od
can be be t t e r unde r s tood i f we tu rn now to t he s oc i a l
problem. This problem can bes t be def ined through an
h is torical ap proa ch. It ar ises in a n age of t ra n si t ion wh en a
highly individual is t ic cul ture has run i t s course and the
time is r ipe for s ociety to pa ss over in to s om e m ore collective
form. A cha n ge su ch a s th is occu rred in th e ear ly Ch ris t ian
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centuries when a decadent individual is t ic Graeco-Roman
cu ltu re p a ss ed over in to th e collective cu ltu re of th e Midd le
Ages . The Graeco-Roman cul ture a t i t s beginning was
centered firs t in t h e t r ibe an d t h en in a collect ion of t r ibes
forming the city-state. These were essentially religiously
in tegra ted com m u n it ies .
Eventua l ly , wi th the format ion of grea t c i t i e s , the
expans ion o f commerce , and t he w ide deve lopment o f
learning, individualism set in, until society lost all inner
coh esion a n d cou ld on ly be held togeth er by th e dictatorial
pol icy of a Caesar . Re l ig ion , which once had been an
integrat ive social force, degenerated into a skeptical or
pa n th eist ic ph ilosoph y, or in to a s olita ry negative myst icism ,
or in to a pa ss iona te effort to secu re pers ona l im m ortal ity.
Fin a lly when all in h erited reser ves of socia l u n ity ha d b een
exhaus ted ; when, in the ru th less s t ruggle for economic
advantage , weal th had become concentra ted in the hands
of a few, the whole s tru ctu re cru m bled to a ch aotic ma ss of
a toms a nd barba r ian s from the n orth walked in u pon th e
ru in s un de ter red .
Yet in th i s chaos and d i s in tegra t ion the re ex i s ted
is lands , re l igious ly integra ted groups of Chris t ians who
offered to th e world a n ew way of life. Th ey were n ot th in kin g
of a pu rely in dividu a l sa lva tion . Th ey h ad th eir gaze fixed
u pward a wait in g a Mess iah wh o ha d prom ised to descen d
an d inau gu rate a n ew socia l order . But th ey did n ot wai t
pa ss ively for His com in g. Th ey set u p exam ples of th a t n ew
promised socia l order in the i r own groups for there the
Messiah h ad already com e in th e Spirit . Th e vis ible Ch u rch
becam e the k in gdom of God on ear th a t leas t in germ, a s St .
August ine shows in his City of God. This Church, the
ou tward body of th e Messiah , grew an d increas ed in power
u n t il in th e twelfth an d th ir teen th cen tu r ies it dom in ated
the whole culture of Europe. In i tself i t united all things:
ph i los ophy , t heo logy , s c i ence , a r t , po l i t i c s , l anguage ,
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A Relig ious Solu tio n To The Social Prob lem12
educat ion. I t cut across nat ional boundar ies jus t as the
Leagu e of Nat ions at t em pts to do toda y.
Bu t, like a ll livin g things, th e Ch u rch reach ed its zen ith
an d d ecayed. Th e cu rr en t of life grew weak u n til th e wh ole
s t ru ctur e seemed to m an y on ly a life less m ech an ism . In th e
s ixteenth an d s eventeenth cen tu r ies a n ew era of t ran s it ion
set in. This t ime it was in the opposite direction from the
earlier tra n sition of th e fou rth a n d fifth cent u ries. A growin g
in dividu alism br oke u p t h e old d yin g grou p life expr ess ed in
chu rch, t ra de gu ild , an d feu da l sys tem. Th e Protes ta n t ism
of Lu th er an d Calvin ab olish ed th e Ch u rch a s a m ean s of
salvat ion and subst i tuted an individual relat ion between
m an an d God. Th e m echa n ics of Galileo an d Newton revealed
a world governed by law, not a world integrated by souls.
Th e Spirit h ad n o place in th e system .
Th e great h u m an is ts of th e Rena issa n ce un covered th e
bril l iant age of classical antiquity when man once beforeh ad u sed th e m atch less p ower of h is own individu al reas on
to discover t ruth, goodness , and beauty. Great explorers
o p e n e d n e w v i s t a s o f h u m a n w e a l t h a n d a d v e n t u r e .
Ph ilosoph ers d iscovered th at k n owledge is p ower to overcome
nature wi th the tools of sc ience; i t does not remain the
pa ss ive con tem plation of ch an geless t ru th . Man kind r eveled
in his powers like a giant refreshed with new wine. Theold s u pern atu ra lism with its other worldly s ta n da rds of life
was t h rown off like th e fetters of a p rison er. Th e seven teen th
centu ry was an age of gian ts wh ose ach ievemen ts increas ed
t h e g e n e r a l s e l f c o n f i d e n c e , B a c o n , S h a k e s p e a r e ,
Cervantes , Kepler , Gal i leo, Newton, Harvey, Descar tes ,
Pas cal, Locke, Sp in oza , Leibn itz, th e list cou ld b e exten ded
much fur ther . Qui te natura l ly there grew up a doct r ine ,
st ra n ge to th e Midd le Ages, th a t p rogress is in evita ble. Th e
discovery of biological evolu tion in th e n in eteen th cen tu ry
con firm ed t h is b elief.
In the nineteenth century individual ism in the well-
kn own form of liber a lism as ser ted th e righ t of every m a n
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to freedom an d equ ality of opportu n ity. Am ong its principal
ph ilosoph ers were Mill an d Spen cer. Und er th e s t im u lat in g
in flu en ce of th is type of th ou ght a ra pid ad van ce was m ad e
in m an y fie lds of h u m an ach ievemen t , thou gh n ot in ar t or
religion . To be libera l m ea n t t o be willing to give to everyone
th e r igh t to ad van ce his own opin ions wha tever th ey m igh t
be . Th e resu lt was n ew ligh t on m an y qu es t ions . It m ean t
also the r ight of the s trong man to accumulate wealth in
whatever rank of society he might be, provided he played
accordin g to th e ru les of th e gam e. Th e resu lt was a ra pid
increase in the total amount of wealth. Yet l iberalism by
its elf, however im porta n t its a ch ievem en ts , is a n in comp lete
an d on e-sided p h ilosoph y of life. In defen din g th e right s of
th e pa rts it ten ds to forget th e r igh ts of th e whole. It s tan ds
for increased f reedom, but has less to say of increased
responsibi l i ty. This is i l lustrated by the fact that the so-
called liberalism of the present moment, though it st i l l
a t tacks al l forms of regimentat ion, has largely tended to
become react ionary. The doctr ines , once used to advance
reform , ma y also be u sed to retar d it .
With t h e rapid advan ce of h u m an ism an d in dividu alism
the s upe rna tu ra l ha s g radua l ly f aded f rom the p i c tu re .
Protestant ism venerated i t , but banished i t to Bible t imes
or the next world. Science could discover nothing higher
tha n h u m an reason , an d reason seemed capa ble of so lvin g
e v e r y p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m . W r i t e r s o n s o c i a l t h e o r i e s ,
endeavor ing to be sc ien t i f i c , dec la red tha t en l igh tened
se l f i shness was enough to hold soc ie ty toge ther . The i r
economic man pursued h i s own in te res t s bu t he was
com pelled to regar d th e in terests of others in so far as th ey
a f f e c t e d h i s o w n . I n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s c i e n c e
succeeded in reducing the world of matter to a swarm of
molecules and atoms each going i ts own individual way
regardless of any spirit of the whole. In the same way
scient ific econ omist s r edu ced s ociety to a collection of h u m an
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
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at oms each pu rs u in g its own in terest. In politics also, scien ce
set the pace. As in mechanics the bigger swarm of atoms
exerts a greater force than the smaller , so in pol i t ics the
bigger swarm of human atoms prevai ls over the smaller
swarm . Qu est ions of r igh t a n d wrong are s et t led by cou n tin g
h ead s ju st a s in th e science of m echa n ics problem s a re solved
by cou n t in g pou n ds a n d feet .
I n e v e r y f i e l d o f h u m a n e n d e a v o r t h e p r o c e s s o f
atomizat ion continued. Art broke away from the whole of
cu ltu re a n d wan ted to b e ar t for ar ts s ak e. Religion declar ed
that i t would stick to i ts own field and leave polit ics and
social quest ions alone. Science declared i ts independence
of re l igion. The f ie ld of knowledge became complete ly
depa rtm en tal ized so tha t a professor of ph ysics was p rou d
to kn ow noth in g of ps ych ology.
It is a cu riou s fact th at s cience, the ch ief in str u m ent of
m an in h is victoriou s s t ru ggle agains t n atu re, was th e firs t
to be t ray h im an d h an d h im over , boun d h an d a nd foot, to
h is a dversary. Science declared th a t m an h as n o freedom of
will, bu t is t h e h elpless victim of blin d m ech a n ical forces;
th at in stea d of a fal len an gel h e is on ly a r isen an im al; th at
h is m in d (if a n y) is a m ere bu n dle of reflexes; th at h is m ost
exal ted emotions resul t from certain chemical compounds
exu ded b y his glan ds ; th a t h is m ost h ear t fe lt opin ions are
m an u factu red by the sc ience of propagan da. It is h ard to
unders tand why man has endured a l l these insu l t s f rom
science with such sereni ty just as we are puzzled by the
Calvinist who takes a kind of pride in his total depravity
an d e te rna l dam na t ion .
In sp ite of a ll, a gen era l belief in h u m a n self-su fficien cy
lin gered u n til th e World War. Th e sh ock of th is ca tas troph e
an d even m ore the ina bility of m an to learn an yth in g by it
or take any val id measures to prevent i t s recurrence has
given a terrific jolt to faith in the inevitability of human
progress . One thing yet remains, however, a fai th in the
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in evita bility of s cien tific pr ogress . Th e Cen tu ry of Progres s ,
celebra ted a t Ch icago, clearly m ar ked a great a n d calculable
scient ific ad van ce. Here it was sh own th at if scien ce can n ot
make life significant, i t can at least make it comfortable.
But even this las t hope seems now to be vanishing. Vast
progress in th e mecha n ical m ean s of m an u factu r in g goods
ha s n ot brou gh t ph ys ica l com for t a s m u ch n earer as m ight
be supposed. I t has increased the ext remes of greed and
want and pi led up goods which the needy are unable to
b u y . T h e r e s u l t i s , a g i g a n t i c d e p r e s s i o n w h i c h s t i l l
con t inues . No wonde r t ha t pe s s imi s m i s r ep l ac ing t he
optimism of a generat ion ago. I t is the pessimism of the
isolat ed ind ividu al s ta n ding alon e in a fr ien dless u n iverse,
with no means of meeting the vast impersonal economic
an d p h ysical forces wh ich bid fa ir to overwh elm h im .
A group of modern humanis ts come forward a t th is
poin t with a r em edy. Th e excellen ce of th eir liter a ry ab ilities
somewhat conceals the naivet of their plan of salvat ion.
They ask m an to as se r t h is h u m an ity; to den y th a t h e is a
beas t or a m ach in e , to defy the tyran t Natu re an d to declare
h is in depend ence of n a tu ra l appet ite an d n atu ra l law. Bu t
they can point to no source of power through which this
declara tion of in dep en den ce can be m a de effective. Th ey can
only assert that this at t i tude is essent ial ly reasonable (or
human) . They do not seem to rea l ize tha t man can ra ise
h im self a bove th e an im a l level on ly by gra sp in g hold of th a t
which is higher than himsel f . Without external he lp he
cannot l i f t himself spir i tual ly any more than he can l i f t
himself physically. Man is not self-sufficient. He becomes
i n d e p e n d e n t o f n a t u r e o n l y i n s o f a r a s h e b e c o m e s
depen dent on tha t which is a bove na tu re .
The mode rn l i t e r a ry humani s t s a s k us t o t ake our
s ta n dar ds of con du ct from th e h u m an is t ic ages of c las s ica l
an t iqu ity or of th e Ren aissa n ce. Bu t th ese ages, u n like ou r
own , followed im m ediately u pon epochs when m an reach ed
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u p to th e divin e, an d i t was lar gely from th ose epoch s th at
th e hu m an ism of th e pas t drew its r eserves of power. At th e
present t ime the reserves of power are becoming s lowly
exhausted, and the pull from below is becoming s tronger
th an th e pu ll from a bove. Th ree centu r ies ago ma n began to
lose his fa ith in th e su per-hu m an . Lit t le did h e kn ow th en
th at th is loss of fa ith in th e su per-hu m an would cau se him
to lose fai th in th e h u m an also. Losin g his grip on t h e h igh er
h e sa gs into th e lower.
This new fal l of man is not just a declarat ion on the
par t of sc ience tha t m an is e ith er an an im al organ ism , as
biology as serts , or a m ach in e as m echa n is t ic ph ysics would
h a ve u s believe. It is m ore th an a ch an ge of viewpoin t. If, in
th is God-forsa ken world, m an believes th at h e can n ot look
u pward for he lp h e ma y con clu de th a t h e can a t leas t look
down ward. Wh y n ot be a b eas t in fact a s well as in th eory
an d en joy th e sa t isfact ion of an im al ap pet ites with a clear
con science . Th e an im als are n atu ra l an d u n affected. Th ey
ar e n ot, app ar en tly, torm en ted b y a s en se of lon ely isola tion
in a m erciless u n iverse . Ou r h u m an isola t ion is d u e to ou r
art i f icial i ty and hypocrisy; our at tempts to be other than
that which, Freud tel ls us , we real ly are. Let us therefore
forget our t roublesome pretensions and indulge ourselves
in a h ealth y, s in cere sen su al ity.
Bu t can we forget? Th e sen su al ity of th e modern m an
is a d eliber a te, self-cons ciou s s en su a lity, n ot a self-forgetfu l
an ima l na tu ra ln ess . In h is end eavor to be a n a tu ra l beas t
h e becom es an u n n atu ra l m an . His enjoym ent of sen su ality
o f t e n d e p e n d s l a r g e l y o n t h e a t t r a c t i o n p o s s e s s e d b y
forbidden things. The fruit is sweet because it comes from
the tree of the knowledge of good and evil . This is shown
pa rt icu lar ly in th e sex literatu re s o volu m in ou s today which
l i v e s o n a k n o w l e d g e o f i t s o w n d e p r a v i t y . S u c h a
sop h ist icat ed sex in teres t is very differen t from th e hea lth y
sen su al ity of th e ba rn yar d. It is accordin gly no rea l escap e
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
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from self-con sciou s in dividu ality. Its em pt in ess is illu st ra ted
by the nature of i ts principal medium, the s i lver screen,
which d epicts a civilizat ion a s s ou lless a n d u n sta ble as th e
shadows of which the pictures are composed. The moving
picture presents , in m ore sens es th an one, a two dim ensional
world with n o depth . In order to exist th is world m u st a lways
con tin u e in r est less m otion.
As n e ithe r h u m an ism n or sen su a lism a re aware of the
t ru e na tu re of th e socia l problem, th ey m ak e no a t tem pt to
m eet it . Th ey ar e con ten t to th in k of m an in in dividu al terms .
Th ere ar e, h owever, th ree im port a n t rem edies for excess ive
individual ism which recognize the nature of the problem,
the f i rs t is autocracy; the second, world denunciat ion or
asceticism; the third is a religiously integrated group. Let
u s con s ider each in tu rn .
The First Solution Autocracy
When men have lost fai th in themselves they tend to
seek refu ge in a s tr ong m an . Th e r ise of dictatorsh ips today,
wheth er of th e fas cis t or comm u n ist type, is eviden ce of th e
retreat of th e in dividu al an d h is fai lu re of n erve. J u st as
individual pieces of matter , not uni ted by an inner bond,
can be held together and coordinated by force external ly
a p p l i e d , s o o v e r - i n d i v i d u a l i z e d m e n c a n b e f o r c e d t o
cooper at e by th e power of th e sta te. Th is is th e oldes t of a ll
remedies , but i t is a lways a s ign of decadence. I t means
t h a t t h e r e i s n o l i v i n g p o w e r w h i c h c a n v i t a l i z e t h e
communi ty . The soul has f l ed and a mechanism i s l e f t
behind. Some ph ilosoph ers of com m u n ism , as for in s ta n ce
J o h n M a c m u r r a y , r e a l i z e t h i s b u t t h e y b e l i e v e t h a t a
dictators h ip is a prel im in ar y s ta ge to organ ic u n ity. Th is is
probab ly wrong. Mech an ism s p rodu ce mecha n ism s. We do
not know of any case where a mechanism has produced
life . I t may be that a rel igious f i re is burning beneath the
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surface in Russia , fusing individual elements , but of this
we can n ot sp eak posi t ively as yet .
The retreat to a mechanical level is exhibited also in
th e recen t growth of extrem e n at ion al ism . Nation s are t oday
d e c l a r i n g t h e i r c o m p l e t e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f e a c h o t h e r ,
econ omic an d oth erwise, an d a re ar m in g to enforce it . Pas t
h i s tory has shown tha t in te rna t iona l anarchy i s usua l ly
overcom e by th e dictat orsh ip of one n at ion, a fter a career of
con qu est . As th ere is ap pa ren tly no p resen t p ossibility of a
Pax Romana, we must look ei ther to a balance of power
which sooner or later wil l become unstable and resul t in
war a s in 191 4, or to an organ ic u n ion of n a t ions , su ch a s i s
im perfectly foresh ad owed in th e Leagu e of Nat ions . Extrem e
i n d i v i d u a l i s m i n n a t i o n s i s a s i n t o l e r a b l e a s e x t r e m e
in dividu al ism in pers ons .4
The Second Solut ion World Renunciat ion
Th e second solu tion pr oposed for th e prob lem of over-
i n d i v i d u a l i s m i s r e n u n c i a t i o n . T h e i n d i v i d u a l i n h i s
lonel iness and isola t ion cannot contend wi th the forces
aga ins t h im and so he re t rea t s f rom the va in pomp and
glory of th is world. As lon g as h e is con fiden t of su cces s in
th is world h is religion is gen era lly a religion of a ction . Wh en ,
however, this confidence is lost , the pain of individuality
an d in ad equa cy is as su aged by com plete su rrend er to th a t
which is ab ove an d b eyon d th e world. Th e as cetic cru cifies
th e flesh th at h is s pirit m ay be pu rified a n d freed from ca rn al
bonds. The sol i tary mystic purges himself of al l that is
sens u ous in order tha t he m ay ach ieve u n ion with th e su per-
s e n s u o u s .
Th is s olu t ion was pa rt icu lar ly widesp read at th e t im e
when the Graeco-Roman civi l izat ion was crumbling into
in dividu al atom s. Wh en In dian cu ltu re ha d reach ed a similar
s ta ge the Bu ddh a p reached on e form of th is m ethod. Th e
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doctrin e of rein carn at ion presen ts th e Bu ddh ist with a m ore
dif f icul t problem than that faced by the Chris t ian. The
Buddhist a ims not only at annihi lat ing his egoism in this
world b u t a lso in t h e n ext . Su fferin g an d in dividu al ity, he
h olds , are du e to desire . Elim in at e all desire an d n othing of
th e ego will rem a in which is cap a ble of su ffering. As a can dle
flam e dissolves in th e dar kn ess a n d goes ou t ; as a drop of
water loses itself in th e ocean ; so th e sepa ra te sou l by ceas in g
to exis t , en ters th e n am eless peace of Nirvan a. Th e process
by wh ich d es ire is e lim in ated a s ta u gh t by the Bu ddh a is
elaborate, but the end is s imple. The Buddhist overcomes
h i s i nd iv idua l i t y by des t roy ing i t . Th i s may s o lve t he
in dividu al prob lem bu t obviou sly it d oes n ot solve th e socia l
problem.
Th i s me thod o f wor ld r enunc i a t i on a s s umes many
in term ediate forms . It is n ot th e fas h ion today to ret ire to
th e wildern ess b u t th ere are m an y wh o refu se to figh t th e
ba t t le of life becau se i t no longer seem s t o th em im porta n t .
They are spectators , not part icipators , looking sometimes
cynical ly, sometimes with mild amusement at those who
st ru ggle to ma ke th e world b etter. It is good form toda y n ot
to take anything very seriously. This world is sometimes
in terest in g bu t gen eral ly borin g. It can n ot ha rm u s for we
can a lways sm ile a t it , kn owin g that a t a n y momen t we can
turn the dia l to a di f ferent wave length and hear another
tu n e. Th is s en se of fu tility arises b ecau se th e in dividu a l is
alon e. He h as fou n d n o great ca u se in which h e can forget
h im self, n o grou p in which h e can m erge h is life .
Th e doctrin e of retirem en t from th e world m ay, h owever,
become the very essence of a healthy, normal religion. As
th e body m u st s omet im es res t , so th e spir it can n ot a lways
str ive. There must be some area of calm into which the
wear ied s ou l ma y with dra w for ren ewal of s tr ength . Th ere
m u st be s ome qu iet t im e of wors h ip wh en th e cou rs e of life
is rese t by pi lot s tars . There must be some pause on the
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jou rn ey wh en th e t ra veler ca n refres h h im s elf a t th e well of
eternal l ife. It is only when such a period of refreshment
ab sorbs al l th in gs in to itself th at religion becom es a m eth od
of esca pe. The soviets ca lled r eligion an opiat e of th e peop le,
and such indeed i t can be i f i ts w hole emph as is is on th e
oth er world. Bu t a life wh ich is wh olly th is-worldly is often
like a s t ream wh ich ru n s d ry becau se it is n ot ren ewed by a
sou rce b eyon d its elf. Th e worlds great religiou s lead ers an d
s oc i a l r e fo rmers have i n gene ra l d i s cove red a ba l ance
between a this-world religion of good works and an other-
world religion of retirement from struggle; a retirement in
wh ich s t rength a n d in s igh t are ren ewed.
The Third Solution The Religiously Integrated Group
I t is such a balance between world-affirmation and
world-renunciat ion that we discover in our third type of
re lease f rom over- individual ism. This has a l ready been
described as exis t ing in t h e ear ly Ch ris t ian comm u n ity an d
th e early Frien ds m eetin g. In su ch grou ps , when th ey live
u p to th eir h igh est ideal, th e in dividu al is n eith er su pp ressed
by au th ority n or elim in ated by ret irem en t . His in dividu al ity
is lost in that of the group but i t is regained on a higher
p l ane . In s ubmi t t i ng t o au thor i t y he f a l l s t o an i n f r a -
individual mechanistic level. In uniting with the spirit of
th e grou p h e rises to a su per-ind ividu a l organ ic level. Th is
word organ ic is often u s ed in a pu rely biologica l s en s e. It
is u sed h ere to design ate a t ype of social organ ism m ad e u p
of pers ons who a re bou n d t ogeth er n ot extern al ly by force
bu t in tern al ly by love an d fr ien ds h ip.
To a scientific mind which recognizes no categories
except those of mechanistic science it is incredible that a
unified group can be formed of persons who respect ful ly
th e freedom an d ind ividu al ity of one a n other. Th e an swer to
th is pa ra dox is n ot scient ific bu t r eligiou s. The cem ent in g
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force is n ot on ly th e love of on e a n oth er. It is a lso t h e love of
God. If th e m em bers of th e grou p looked on ly to each other
they would reac t aga ins t each o ther l ike b i l l i a rd ba l l s ,
s t r ikin g an d rebou n ding. In stea d th ey look to th at wh ich is
ab ove th em a ll yet in t h em a ll; th ey look to th e Spirit wh ich
u n ites from ab ove.
This method has a long h i s tory . The t r ibe and the
patriarchal family were largely biological units but when
ind iv idua l i s m a ros e t hey cou ld no t depend who l ly on
biological ties. The tribal or family religion was of such a
character that the individual in part icipat ing in i ts r i tual
felt h im self u n ited to th e wh ole. In th e Chines e pa tr iar ch al
family the shr ine where the ances tors are worshiped has
been the most powerful of family bonds. The totem of the
tr ibe is worsh iped a s a sym bol of a n in tegra tin g life force. At
a t i m e w h e n t h e o l d G r e e k d e i t i e s w e r e n o l o n g e r
intel lectual ly accepted, Greek s tatesmen advocated their
worship as a means of unifying the ci ty-s tate . I t was the
worship of Jehovah which held Israel together and made
her victorious over her enemies. Many races and peoples
look back to some golden age when the individual found
freedom a n d joy as a m emb er of a group .
Bu t th is fa m ily or t riba l type of religion was tied closely
to the soil . Its gods were fixed in home or temple. When
com m ercia l expan s ion firs t cam e an d m en began to move
freely over th e eart h it b ega n to weak en . Hors es, iron , lar ger
ships , broke up the old groups and gave men new power
over th eir fellows. The r ich grew rich er a n d t h e poor, poorer.
Th rou gh th e disin tegrat in g force of comm erce wh ich m ixed
u p m en from widely scat tered places th e firs t great a ge of
in dividu al ism set in rou gh ly ab ou t th e seven th an d s ixth
cen tu ries B.C. Ma n y like Am os b ewailed t h e good old da ys
an d pr onou n ced a doom on greedy m ercha n ts who exploited
th eir br eth ren . Alm ost at th e sa m e t im e in widely sca t tered
places grea t re l ig ious geniuses appeared of fe r ing the i r
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rem edies for th e declin e of s ocia l form s of religion . J erem ia h
preached a personal rel igion, a new covenant wri t ten not
on tables of s tone but on the hear t . In China , Confucius
and Laotze ; in India , Buddha and Mahavi ra ; in Pers ia ,
Zoroas ter; in Greece, th e first ph ilosophers an d th e n am eless
fou n der s of th e m ystery religion s; all app ear ed t o offer s om e
solven t for a n excess of in dividu a lity. Sin is es tra n gem en t,
lonel iness , separat ion. Salvat ion is a closing of the gap
between th e isolated life an d a h igh er life , an aton em ent or
at -one-m en t with deity. Th e rem edy is a red irection of will
(J u d a is m ) o r a m y s t ic u n io n (Ta o is m , O r p h is m ) o r
an n ih ilation of self (Bu dd h ism ) or social ad ju stm ent th rou gh
decoru m (Con fu cian ism ).
These methods of a id ing the i so la ted human a tom,
eith er to end u re exis ten ce or to dispose of it , h ave met th e
n eeds of m an y millions of pers ons , bu t it is d ou btfu l wheth er
an y of th em will widely ap pea l to th e occiden ta l world of th e
twent ie th century. Nor can we go back to the t r ibe , the
pa triar ch a l fa m ily, or th e sm a ll city-sta te. Th ere is, h owever,
one remedy which fully meets the difficulty and which is
con sis ten t with m odern life an d m odern con ceptions of th e
w o r l d . T h i s i s t h e r e l i g i o u s l y i n t e g r a t e d c o m m u n i t y
com pa ra ble to th at wh ich exis ted in early Chr is t ian ity an d
ear ly Qu ak er ism .
I t may we l l be a s ked why ins e r t t he ad j ec t i ve
re l ig ious? Are the re not a round us a vas t number of
as sociat ion s of al l sorts in which th e m odern in dividu al in
some measure overcomes his isolat ion; such associat ions
a s c l u b s , l o d g e s , p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , t r a d e u n i o n s , a n d
o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o r e l i m i n a t i o n o f
everyth in g con ceiva ble? Th ese, h owever, a re h eld togeth er
by wh at m igh t be ca lled a h orizonta l relat ion b etween m an
an d m an . Th ose wh o ha ve com m on interests fin d cooperation
and mutual adjus tment of individual des i res essent ia l to
su ccess . Such as sociation s ra n ge all th e way from a bu sin ess
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
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corpora t ion organized through a sys tem of author i ta t ive
control , to a discussion group interested only in a search
for tru th . Th ese as socia tion s m ay con ta in r eligiou sly-m in ded
in dividu als bu t , with som e poss ible exceptions , th ey are n ot
religiously integrated.
I n r e l i g i o u s w o r s h i p t h e h o r i z o n t a l b o n d s a r e
su pp lemen ted by vertical bon ds leading up to a h igh er Bein g
who un i t e s men by d rawing them a l l t o H ims e l f . The
in tegration is on a h igher level. Wh en J esu s s a id, Wh erever
two or th ree are gath ered together in m y na m e th ere am I in
th e mids t of th em, h e did n ot mean th at h e would com e as
one in dividu al am ong oth er ind ividu als . His Spirit inclu des
but t ranscends each individual . I am the vine, ye are the
branches. I, if I be lifted up, will draw all men unto me.
Men can be united by al l fal l ing into the same pi t or they
can be uni ted by c l imbing by var ious paths to the same
m ou n ta in top. A lyn ching m ob is obviou sly in tegra ted on a
lower level than a religious meeting held in the spirit of
Chris t .
An u pward s tr ivin g towar d a h igh er world can , u n der
certain con dit ions, create the s tron gest h u m an bond s with in
th e world. Th is is th e fu n da m en ta l pa ra dox of religion which
resis ts a ll a t tem pts at ra t iona lizat ion becau se i t is crea t ive
of th e new an d u n pr edictab le. Social progress is a ch ild b oth
of this world and of a higher world. Each world is sterile
with ou t th e oth er. Th e oth er-worldly per son seek s on ly for
a fl ight from this vale of tears to a haven of peace and
secu rity; th e this-worldly pers on ign ores th e su pern atu ra l5
as m ere wish fu lfillm en t, a m ean s of esca pe for th ose u n fit
for life s s t r u ggle . Ye t th e h is tory of m a n kin d s h ows ,
especially in the great creative periods, that i t is only the
fert i le union of both worlds which can bring about a new
birth of a h igh er level of exis ten ce.
Protes tan t ism h as fa iled to br in g ab out s u ch a u n ion
because, by i ts very nature, i t seems doomed to be one-
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A Relig ious Solu tio n To The Social Prob lem24
sided. For a long t ime i t condemned this world as evi l ,
teach in g a pu rely in dividu al sa lvat ion th rou gh faith in Book,
creed, serm on , an d ritu a l. Now it is eith er swin gin g toward
fu n da m en ta lism , wh ich r evives th e old exclu sive depen den ce
on the su perna tu ra l an d t ran scen dent , or it is p reaching a
social gosp el devoid of ch a ra cter is tically religiou s elem en ts .
On e difficu lty is t h at Protesta n tism h as evolved n o religiou s
m eth od n or th eory for fu sin g the t wo. Cath olicism effected
a pract ica l synthes is of na ture and supernature near ly a
th ou sa n d years a go wh ich s at isfied th e m in d of th e Midd le
Ages bu t it carr ies in to th e presen t s o mu ch obsolete baggage
th at it can n ot lead in social or th eoret ical advan ce. In early
J u da ism , as described in th e Old Testam ent , th e conception
of a Holy Community integrated by a common worship of
J ehovah was developed by th e prophets a n d in large m easu re
actual ized. This Holy Communi ty was the parent of the
Chr is t ian Chu rch . In modern J u da ism , sca t t e red abou t as
it is over th e fa ce of th e ear th , th ere is l it t le opp ortu n ity to
revive th is a n cien t order.
Quakerism And The Ideal Com m unity
Qu ak erism comb in es in religiou s worsh ip two elem en ts
which a re usua l ly cons idered incompat ib le , a mys t ica l
approach to God and a social relat ion to our fel lows. The
lonely mystic knows only the vertical relation to God, the
social gospeler too often only the horizontal relation to
m an , bu t group m yst ic ism takes a ccoun t of both God an d
m an . In th e grou p we fin d th at we need ou r fellow worsh ipers
in th e search for God a n d we need God in th e search for ou r
fellows. Ea ch sea rch leads in to th e other. In th e s i lence of
livin g wors h ip we st rive to crea te a sen s itivity to th e Divin e
presence by removing selfish, individual desires. We find
t h a t t h e p a r t i t i o n w h i c h s e p a r a t e s G o d a n d m a n a l s o
separ a tes m an an d m an . Or we m ay firs t reach out in love
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
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toward our fe llows in an end eavor to u n ders ta n d th em a n d
th e con flicts an d pr oblems wh ich trou ble them ; an d s u dden ly
som e win dow of th e sou l opens an d th e breath of a d ivin er
air com es in . Once m ore the Sp irit which h as brooded over
cha os from th e begin n in g h as sp oken th e creat ive Word an d
cha ot ic hu m an a tom s ar e reborn into the u n ity of a h igh er
life. We know that we have passed out of death into l ife
becau se we love th e breth ren . (I J ohn 3:14.)
T h e w o r d s o n e a n o t h e r o c c u r w i t h s u r p r i s i n g
frequ en cy in th e ear ly Frien ds writin gs. Fox in h is letters
often identifies the t ie which unites the worshipers to God
with the t ie which unites them to each other. Mind, he
says, that which is pure in one another which joins you
together; therefore, all Friends, obey that which is pure
with in you an d kn ow one an other in th a t which br in gs you
to wait on th e Lord; Frien ds , m eet togeth er a n d k n ow on e
an other in th at wh ich is etern al wh ich was before the world
was, feel the power of God in one another, that all may
be as one fam ily bu ildin g up one an other a n d h elpin g on e
another . 6 Pen n , in h is p reface to Foxs J ou rn al , sp eak s of
the ear ly Fr iends as t rea t ing one another as those tha t
believed a n d felt God pr esen t.
Th e group th at h as th u s foun d God h as s olved the social
pr oblem with in its elf. Non e of its m em bers h en ceforth fa ce
th e world a lone a s ind ividu als. Th e ties wh ich bind it togeth er
are not easi ly broken by material or economic forces . I t
can n ot ign ore the n eeds of an y of its m em bers . Bu t it is n ot
a Noah s ar k b u ilt to s a ve a few from a dr own in g world.
Experience pr oves th at t h ere is a lways genera ted a n over-
plu s of sp iritu al power which seek s ou tlet in a la rger field. If
th ere is n o goin g ou t from t h e grou p to t ra n sform th e world
in to a greater Holy Com m u n ity th en th e grou p is eith er dead ,
or it is a plan t-like exist en ce. If th e grou p is to resem ble th e
highest type of l iving things i t must, l ike them, modify its
environm ent. An in n er sen se of peace, secur ity, an d s piritu al
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
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power is a t ta in ed in grou p worsh ip b u t it is n ot hen ceforth
conf ined to any par t i cu la r p lace or t ime . Each member
carr ies i t about in his hear t wherever he goes and ac ts
accordingly. He becomes an apostle of a new social order
pa t tern ed a fter th e type of procedu re which created a livin g
u n ity in h is own m ore lim ited group .
Th is type of social order is ba sed n ot on th e tyra n n y of
an in dividu al or a m a jority of in dividu als wh o u se violen ce
or th rea t of violen ce to en force th eir wish es. Differen ces a re
ad ju sted by a p rocess of in tegra t ion in wh ich n o in dividu al
is s u bm erged bu t in which every viewpoin t ta kes s ome place
or exerts som e in flu en ce in th e fin al ach ievem ent . Th e way
to bring about a new social order l ike this is to achieve it
firs t in ones h eart an d in t h e religiou s grou p t o wh ich one
belongs and then to l ive in i t wherever one may be. It will
t h e n b e a r o u s e d i n t h e h e a r t s o f o t h e r s a n d g r o w b y
contagion. Such a method involves serious r isk to those
who u n derta ke it for a pers on l ivin g in th is kind of a social
order becomes subject to the violence of those not in i t .
Neverth eless th is m eth od of vent u re a n d s acrifice is t h e one
me thod by which t he k ingdom of God p ropaga t e s and
repr odu ces its elf.
Qu akerism at its best p resents th is a n swer to the Social
Problem . It is n ot a plan ba sed on (th ou gh it does n ot exclu de)
econ om ic or p olit ical th eories, bu t a s ocial dyna m ic ar isin g
ou t of a certa in type of u n ifyin g exper ien ce. Th e h ist ory of
t he Soc i e ty o f F r i ends g ives ample ev idence t ha t t h i s
experience is int im ately bou n d u p, both as cau se a n d effect ,
with social reform s of a p ra ctical an d far -reach in g ch ar acter. 7
But the gen eral app licat ion of th e Qu aker m ethod h as h ard ly
begun. There are large areas of confl ict , part icularly in
in du str y, wh ich await pion eers of social progress .
There are some reasons why the present age may be
m ore favora ble to th e Qu ak er religiou s a n d s ocial meth od
th an th e seventeenth cen tu ry wh en th e Socie ty of Fr iend s
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
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arose . In th e seventeenth cen tu ry, as we h ave a lready seen,
the man of wes tern Europe was jus t emerging f rom the
c o n t r o l o f a n o l d c u l t u r e a n d a c q u i r i n g a n u n l i m i t e d
c o n f i d e n c e i n h i m s e l f . A n e w c o n t i n e n t a w a i t e d h i s
exploi tat ion and a new science was ready to furnish him
with th e m ean s t o exploit it . Newton was a con tem pora ry of
Fox bu t Newton in crea sed while Fox decrea sed . As s cien ce
developed, m a n s faith in h is a bility to con trol his d estin y
grew an d fai th in a religion wh ich looked to th e su perh u m an
for help correspondingly lessened. The Society of Friends
retired into a sh ell of rigid disciplin e in order to pr eserve th e
pa ttern of life it h a d d eveloped. Bu t in th e las t few year s t h e
direct ion of th e cu rrent h as chan ged. Hum an ism , a mom ent
ago everywhere t r iumphant , s t ands baf f l ed and wi thout
resources before a crumbling social order. Man is losing
confidence in the power of science to save him. What is
even m ore s ign ifican t a n d p roph etic , the greatest scien t is ts
of today ha ve tu rn ed to ph ilosophy an d h ave discovered th at
th e older m echa n is t ic con ceptions describe on ly a s h ad ow
world. Th e deeper rea lity, th ey sa y, is organ ic an d its n atu re
is revealed not through balance or measur ing rod but by
th e m ystic vision.
An age of co l lec t iv i sm of some sor t i s apparent ly
da wn in g. Th e cen tr a l qu es tion is will it b e a collectivis m
based on external authori ty to meet a purely economic or
politica l n eed , or will it b e a cu ltu re th a t is, a collectivis m
ba sed on Spirit wh ich gu ides m en from with in . If th e secon d
alterna t ive is t h e h oped-for an swer we m u st r ealize th at it
can com e about , n ot th rou gh some su dden revolu t ion bu t
only th rou gh a long, s low process of growth . Becau se th e
Kin gdom of Heaven is a n organ ism an d n ot a m ech an ical
collect ivism J esu s com pa red i t to a t r ee wh ich begin s in a
very small seed. Like a tree, it cannot grow if it is cut off
eith er from th e Light of Heaven ab ove or from th e da rk ear th
benea th .
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Th at th e case is far from h opeless can be sh own by a
comparison of the present t ime wi th the t ime in which
Ch ristian ity a rose. Th ere is th e sa m e excess of in dividu alism
an d a corr esp on din g effort to esta blish a collectivism ba sed
on a u th ority. Th ere is th e sa m e fai lu re of n erve, th e sa m e
cyn ic ism , skept ic ism , an d s toic apa th y, the s am e sen se of
fu tility in th e fa ce of blin d econ om ic a n d political forces . No
wonder th a t to m an y m en of th e firs t centu ry the s itu a t ion
seemed h opeless a n d th e on ly rem edy a su dden revolu t ion
an d th e com in g of th e Messiah from t h e clou ds of h eaven.
No wond er th at to m an y m en toda y a b loody revolu tion s eems
th e only rem edy. Bu t th e early Chr is t ian s d id n ot wait for
revolution. They set up the new social order in their own
religiou s com m u n it ies . Th ese com m u n it ies were the s eeds
of th e kin gdom . Th e Chu rch becam e th e kin gdom of God on
ear th , very im per fect of cou rs e, bu t a livin g en tity th rou gh
which men were ra i sed up to a h igher and a more than
in dividu al life . Th at th e Chu rch lat er com prom ised with th e
sta te an d a dopted som e of its m ethods does n ot detract from
its grea t achievement in offer ing a rea l solut ion to the
pr oblem of excess ive in dividu a lism . Th e h ope of bu ilding u p
a s ocia l order in which th e Sermon on th e Moun t wou ld b e
accepted for wha t i t obviou sly m ean s was n ever given u p.
In th e mon as tery a s in cere bu t ab ort ive effort was m ad e to
avoid compromise with the world and to create spir i tual
and economic interdependence in a rel igiously integrated
communi ty .
Th e world today a waits th at in dividu al or grou p which
can m in is ter to it s n eeds in th e sa m e way in wh ich th e ear ly
Chris t ian com m u n it ies a dm in is tered to th e n eeds of th e ir
t ime . The remedy for soc ia l d i s in tegra t ion i s no t more
centra lized a u th ority wh ich sooner or later is d estroyed b y
th e very forces wh ich it s ets in m otion . Nor is i t a r etrea t to
a monastery, nor to an at t i tude of indifference, nor to a
pu rely oth er-world m ysticism . We m u st h ave a kind of social
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
A Relig ious Solu tio n To The Social Prob lem29
cem ent wh ich bin ds from with in so th a t th e u n ity formed is
n ot m ech an ical bu t livin g. Wh ere can we get it except from
the source whence i t has a lways come f rom, a type of
religiou s experience which a t on ce creates an d is created by
an organ ic social order? In th is ta sk we can ta ke only one
s tep a t a t im e. Mech an ical th in gs can be m ad e quickly bu t
livin g th in gs grow slowly. We a re a t leas t a ble to bu ild u p
sm all bi ts of th e kin gdom h ere an d th ere wh erever a grou p
of pers ons become u n ited a n d l ifted u p b y the Presence in
th e m ids t. If th ese grou ps a re livin g th ey will in creas e an d
m u ltiply for rep rod u ction is t h e la w of a ll life. It is ess en tial
th at we help bind u p th e broken wou n ds of th e world. It is
even m ore im portan t th a t we a t once se t abou t bu ildin g u p
a world in which th ese woun ds sh all n ot occu r .
Ch rist ia n ity, sa ys Heiler in The S pirit of Wors h ip, is
weary of individualism which weakens and divides; i t is
st rivin g to escap e from th e n ar row bon da ge of th e su bjective
into the wide freedom of the objective, the Universal; from
the limitations of the isolated individual to the fullness of
s trength of the great Community. Many are the seekers
sea rch in g for s u ch fu lln ess of st ren gth . Th ey will fin d it in
an u preach in g self-forgetfu l m in d wh ich u n ites a n d creates ;
in a m yst ica l in s igh t which s ens es both th e u pward p u ll of
Divine power and the frail tendrils of lonely human lives
reaching ou t for su pport ; in a s acram ent which is a t once
com m u n ion with God a n d with m an . Th is was th e ear lies t
h u m an sea rch . It will a lso be th e las t .
The Fundam ental Christian Doctrine
Can there be a soc ia l sa lva t ion which ignores the
Chris t ian doctr in e of th e atonem ent? To ma n y person s toda y
this i s not an important ques t ion, but i t s cons idera t ion
br in gs to bear on ou r cent ra l problem some in teres t in g an d
significant facts. The individualistic interpretation of the
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aton emen t , as s e t for th in m ost Protes ta n t creeds , can h elp
u s b u t lit t le . But primit ive Ch ris t ian ity, as we ha ve already
s e e n , d i d n o t p u t i t s c e n t r a l e m p h a s i s o n i n d i v i d u a l
sa lva tion . It br ou ght a socia l gosp el to m eet a s ocial need .
In th e h is tory of ou r religion we fin d m an y at tem pts to
express in symbols the nature of that l iving power which
holds society together from within. The early Chris t ians
sym bolized it in th e love feas t ea ten togeth er in m em ory of
th e Las t Su pper . In th e firs t accou n t of th e Las t Su pper to
be writ ten (I Cor. 11), J esu s ta kes t h e cup an d s ays Th is
cu p is th e n ew coven an t in m y blood. Th ese words m ean
lit t le to u s today bu t to the m en who firs t h eard th em th ey
were fra u gh t with profou n d s ignifican ce. Perh ap s th eir m in ds
went back to the old covenant which was made between
J eh ovah an d Isra el at Mt. Sin ai . Here a cont ra ct was sea led
according to which the people of Israel formally adopted
J ehovah as th e ir God a n d pr omised to serve on ly Him an d
He, in turn, promised to a id and protec t them. The Old
Testa m en t , taking its n am e from th is contr act , was writ ten
to s how tha t J ehovah had a lways kep t H i s pa r t o f t he
bargain, but Is rae l had been unfa i thful many t imes and
h ad su ffered in con sequ ence. Moses sealed the con tra ct by
a n im pr ess ive ritu a l (Exod . XXIV). Th e peop le st a n d b efore
God who is represented by an altar. Victims are sacrificed
and their blood poured into bowls . Half of the blood is
spr inkled over th e a ltar . Moses th en reads th e terms of th e
agreem ent an d th e people sa y, All th at th e Lord h ath sp oken
will we do an d be obed ien t. Th e rem a in der of th e blood is
th en sp rin kled over th e people, with th e words beh old th e
blood of th e coven an t.
Th i s r i t ua l had a s i gn i f i can t mean ing . The b lood
represented life (Lev. XVII: 11,14). Two parties formerly
independent of each other are uni ted into a s ingle l iving
whole because each is made to share in the same blood,
th at is , in th e sa m e vital essen ce. To accom plish th is i t is
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n ecess ar y tha t th e life of a th ird pa rty be s acrificed in order
th at its l ife , bein g sh ar ed in by th e oth er two, migh t u n ite
them into a s ingle l i fe . Before the covenant was sealed
J ehovah and I s r ae l we re mere ly con t iguous . Af t e r t he
coven a n t th ey were u n ited b y a livin g bon d, a th ird life, in
wh ich both s h ared .
Wh at more n a tu ra l tha n th a t J esu s , knowing tha t h is
own life wou ld b e sa crificed on t h e m orrow, sh ou ld th in k of
his blood as the blood of the new covenant creating like
the blood of the old covenant a l iving bond between man
an d God. His l ife was to becom e th at th ird th in g, bridgin g
the gap between the divine and human, thus overcoming
th at isolat ion of th e in dividu al , th e estra n gemen t, wh ich is
called sin . Th is is at on em en t, th e cen tra l doctrin e of th e
Ch ristian religion .
Th ou gh th e symb ols by wh ich r eligion s peak s ch an ge
from a ge to age, old t ru th s rem ain. It is in th at inn er bon d
of uni ty be tween man and God which Moses and Jesus
sym bolized b y blood th a t we m u st seek th e power of social
sa lvat ion . In th e ear ly Ch u rch J esu s s aved th e in dividu al
becau se it was His S pirit which was t h e sou l of th e Chr istian
c o m m u n i t y , a n d i t w a s i n a n d t h r o u g h t h e C h r i s t i a n
comm u n ity th at th e in dividu a l was s a ved from ins u fficien cy
an d isolat ion . Am ong th e early Qu ak ers i t was th e Chr is t
within, who was the Spirit not only within the individual
bu t a lso with in th e grou p a s a livin g wh ole wh o bridged th e
gap between th e sepa ra te in dividu al an d a lar ger wh ole of
life. In th e religiou sly in tegrat ed com m u n ity th e in dividu a l
finds his problem solved for he is no longer alone. He has
fou n d m an an d God, each th rou gh the o th er .
Bu t n ow in Ch ris t J esu s ye tha t once were far off ar e
m ad e n igh in th e blood of Chr is t . For h e is ou r pea ce wh o
h ath m ad e both one , and broken d own th e middle wal l of
pa rti t ion (Ep h . 11 : 13,1 4).
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HOWARD H. BRINTON
A Relig ious Solu tio n To The Social Prob lem32
Notes
1 . S ee Ba r cla ys Inner Life of the Religiou s S ocieties of theCom m onw ealth , p p . 3 7 5 - 3 7 7 . Barc l ay , t he Quake r
Apologis t, d efin es th e Love Fea s t a s to ea t a n d d rin k
together in the dread and presence of the Lord as His
people w hich cus tom w e sh all not cond em n.
2. In ea r ly Ch r is t ian ity the n ew foun d libe r ty from the law
of Moses gave rise to th e sa m e problem. Pau l twice war n s
th e Corin th ian s th at All th in gs ar e lawfu l; bu t a ll th in gsa re n ot expedient . (I Cor. 6:12 ; 10:23 .)
3 . Su ch, for in st a n ce, as W. S. Elliott, The Proces s of Group
Thinking.
4. It is in te res t ing to n ot ice in th is con n ect ion th a t the
Cou n cil of th e Leagu e of Nat ion s a rrives a t i ts d ecisions
much af ter the manner of a Quaker meet ing. As one
objection will, in m u st ca ses , ma ke a ction imp oss ible, itis u seless to ta ke a vote an d s o conclu sion s a re arr ived
at b y genera l assen t .
5 . Su ch words as su perna tu ra l an d other wor ld ly a re
unfor tuna te inher i t ances f rom an age when human
and divine were considered as dis t inct and separate
as oil and water. A life which is qualitatively higher is
n o more u n n at u ra l n or m ira cu lou s th an th e lower.6 . Th e s e qu ot a t ion s a r e ta k e n fr om B r a ys h a w, Th e
Quakers , p a ge 99.
7. Su ch a s re ligious liber ty, peace, the ab olit ion of s lavery,
tem pera n ce, prison reform , the care of th e in sa n e, etc .