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Leadership
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What is leadership? Many definitions--some examples:
�Leadership is the initiation of action to solve a problem
�Leadership is directing or controlling the activity of a group
�Leadership is influencing the activities of group as it moves toward its goals.
Leadership is power, But power is not necessarily leadership.
Power is the ability to get others to do what you want them to do.
But coercive power is not leadership.
Rather leadership is power that grows out of personal characteristics such ascharisma, expertise, and interpersonal skills.
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Sources of Power and Leadership
Power from Personal CharacteristicsYES NO
Power from
The Position
YES
NO
Officer Formal Leader
Informal Leader Follower
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ABrief History of Leadership Theory
I. A Trait Approach(1900-1950s): Leaders are born, not made.
The focus of early leadership research was to find personal traits that distinguished
leaders from followers.
The search was not successful--100s of studies lead to the conclusion that there was
no such set of personal characteristics that by themselves distinguished leaders
from non-leaders.A few traits such as above average intelligence,
responsibility, self confidence, and persistence were associated with leaders, but
they are not sufficient explanations.
Later studies of leadership characteristics led to the conclusion that there were a few
general traits that were associated with effective leadership such as self-confidence, stress tolerance, emotional maturity, and integrity--but again no
trait or set of traits by itself guaranteed leader effectiveness.
Both the situation and skill also have a lot to do with leadership effectiveness.
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II. A Situational Approach: Leaders are made, not born.
For a short time in the 1950s sociologists tried to demonstratethat the situation determined leadership, but they too were
unsuccessful.
Like the trait approach, the situational approach was doomed tofailure because it was too narrow in its view.
Most contemporary leadership theories now subscribe to the
position that traits, behaviors, and situation interact to determine
the effectiveness of a leader.
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III. A Contingency Approach
Contemporary approaches to leadership acknowledge theimportance of matching the traits and leadership behavior to
situations to maximize effectiveness.
But the thorny questions are what traits or styles with whatsituations.
What are the basic situations?
What are the basic styles?
What are the matches that lead to effectiveness?
These are the critical questions of leadership.
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Three Major Sets of Empirical Studies
I. The Ohio State Leadership Studies (LBDQ-Studies)
Early studies of leadership at Ohio State, which sought to d escribe the behavior of
leaders and identify the basic dimensions of leadership. The focus was on
how people who occupied leadership positions actually behaved. The method
was survey research and descriptive questionnaire. How do you leaders
actually behave.
After extensive study, the conclusions were:
� Initiating Structure and Consideration: the two basic dimensions of
leadership.
� Effective leaders most often were high on both dimensions.� Superiors and subordinates evaluate contributions in opposite directions.
� Only a slight relation between ideal and real behaviors.
That is knowing how to behavior does not guarantee one will behave that way.
Knowing and Doing are different activities.
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II. Two Michigan Studies
A. Research Center for Group Dynamics--Cartwright and Zander
Study of small groups working on tasks; the research method was to observe small
groups solve problems and accomplish tasks.
Conclusions:
� There were two basic functions need for success: GoalAchievement &
Group Maintenance.
� For a group to be effective, both functions needed to be accomplished.
B. Survey Research Center
Large-scale studies of organizations like the OCDQ studies using questionnaires todescribe behavior of leaders.
Conclusion: Two kinds of leader behavior:
Production-Oriented Behavior
Employee-Oriented Behavior
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III. Harvard Studies
Laboratory of Social Relations--Bales
A pproach: Experimental study interaction pattern in groups and Interaction Analysis
Findings:
1. Not one leader in the group, but rather two leaders emerge.
2.A
task lead er to get the job done--skill at moving the group toward task
A relations lead er to care for social relations--most popular
3. As the group develops it becomes increasingly difficult for the one leader to be
both a task and relations leader.
4. ADual Leadership Model emerges
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A basic conclusion from leadership studies--
Regardless of approach, there are two dimensions or functions of leadership.
Different researches label them differently, but they are the same.
1. Task Relations
2. Initiating Structure Consideration
3. Production-oriented Employee-oriented4. Task Social
5. Goal-oriented People-oriented
6. Concern for production Concern for people
7. Instrumental Expressive
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Leadership Styles
Task
Relations
High +
High +
Low -
Low -
Dynamic
Leader
Relations
Leader
Task
Leader
Passive
Leader
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ContingencyA pproaches to Leadership
Effectiveness depends on matching the style to the situation
1. Fiedler¶s ContingencyA pproach2. Hersey and Blanchard¶s SituationalA pproach
3. Hoy¶s Complementary Model
4. Hoy & Reed¶s Enabling Model--in development
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Fielder¶s Contingency Theory of Leadership
BasicAssumption: The effectiveness of a group is contingent upon the relationship
between the lead ership style and the degree to which the situation enables the leader to
exert influence.
� Effectiveness--is the degree to which the group accomplishes it task.
� Lead ership Style--the underlying need structure that motivates behavior; there are two
basic need structures or leadership styles:
�Task-oriented- leader gets basic needs gratified by accomplishing the task.
�Relations-oriented- leader gets needs gratified by achieving good personal relations
**Note: leadership style in this theory is not behavior, but rather need structure.
�Situational Control (Favorableness of the situation)--is the degree of power and
influence that leaders have to implement their plans, decisions, and strategies.
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Conclusions for Contingency Theory
1. In high-control situations, task-oriented leaders are
more effective than relations-oriented leaders.
2. In moderate-control situations, relations-oriented
leaders are more effective than task-oriented leaders.
3. In low-control situations, task-oriented leaders are
more effective than relations-oriented leaders.
4. Avoid situations where you are likely to fail.
5. Match your leadership style with the appropriate situation;
seek situations where you will likely succeed and know
when it it time to move on. Situations change.
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Hersey and Blanchard--Situational Theory
BasicAssumption: Leader effectiveness depends on the appropriate matching of
leadership behavior with the situation.
**Note the theory applies to both individuals and groups and hierarchical and
colleague relationships.
Readiness of the group or person is the key situational variable.
Readiness of Group or Person Readiness of Group or Person
Sets realistic goals Sets unrealistic or no goals
Assumes responsibility Avoids responsibility
Has ability and technical knowledge Lacks ability and knowledge
Has self-respect and self-confidence Lacks self-respect and self-confidence
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Readiness of the Group
High Low
High Moderate Low
R 4 R 3 R 2 R 1
Readiness is the capacity of the individual or group to set high but
attainable goals, to show willingness and ability to take
responsibility, to have experience and knowledge, and to have self-
confidence[A ble, willing, and confident].
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Four Leadership Styles
Task Behavior
Relations
Behavior
HighLow
High
Low
Participating
Delegating
Selling
Telling
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Matching Style and Situation
High Moderate Low
R 4 R 3 R 2 R 1
Participating Selling
Delegating Telling
Relations
Low
High
HighLow
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Conclusions
1. Effectiveness depends upon matching leadership
behavior style with the maturity of the group in a
specific situation.
2. Remember knowing and doing are different things.
3. Leaders must develop flexibility to change style.4. Matching style and situation is not the only leadership
role; group development is another important role, that
is, moving the group to readiness and responsibility is
also an leadership role.
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Hoy¶s Complementary Model of Leadership:
Some Theorizing
BasicAssumption: Leadership effectiveness depends on providing both leadership
functions for a group--goal achievement and group maintenance. Thus, the
leader must ensure that both functions are met and match his/her style with the
strengths and weaknesses of the group.
Basic Group Functions:
� GoalAchievement
� Group Maintenance
Leadership Behavior Styles�Task-oriented Style
�Human-relations Style
�Dynamic Style
�Delegative Style
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M atch Style and Situation by Complementary Behavior
Human
Relations
Style
Dynamic
Style
Delegative
Style
Task-
Oriented
Style
Fostering
InterpersonalRelations
Low
High
HighLow
Accomplishing the Task
Group Functions
Goal Achievement
Group Maintenance +
++
+ - -
--
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Conclusions
1. Effective leadership is dependent on the group meeting
both of its basic functions--goal achievement and group
maintenance.
2. The role of the leader is to read how well the group is
meeting these needs and then complement the activitieswith the appropriate style.
3. The leader has to be flexible and able to perform all four
leadership behavior styles.
4. The leadership process is developmental; that is, as the
group becomes able to perform leadership functions on itown in a given situation, the leader delegates the
responsibility to the group.
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New Leadership Perspectives: Retreat or Advance?
1. Charismatic Leadership2. Transformational and Transactional Leadership
Contemporary discussions of leadership and research on leadership
have been concerned with the related notions of charismaticleadership and transformational leadership.
With the advocacy of charismatic and transactional leadership, there is a
tendency to think of the ³one best style again.´ Some of the
contemporary advocates of these styles seem to suggest the return tosuch a perspective, but others acknowledge that the situation that
these styles are facilitated by some situations and hindered by
others.
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Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic leadership has its origins in the analyses of Max Weber.
Some leaders have an extraordinary personality; in fact,their personality
is so strong the people in large part to the power of their
personality. But leading is not effectiveness. Getting others to
follow is successful leadership, but it is not necessarily effectiveleadership; that is, effective leadership depends on the
accomplishment of tasks and goals of the group.
Successful versus Effective Leadership
Kennedy, Clinton, Regan as well as Hitler and Mussolini were all
charismatic leaders.
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Transformational Leadership
James McGregor Burns first developed the ideas of transactional and
transformational leadership.
T ransactional lead ership involves exchanging rewards for services rendered. It is a
form of contingent reinforcement with the leader rewarding and reinforcing desired
behavior.
T ransformational lead ership, in contrast, goes beyond exchange inducements for
desired performance. Transformational leaders transform the organization by
developing vision, building commitment, and empowering followers.
Bass in industry and Leithwood in schools have popularized the concept of
transformation leadership and have developed frameworks and measures that haveled to a body of research on transformational leadership.
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Bass views transformational leadership as an expansion of
transactional leadership that goes beyond simple exchange and
agreements by employing the one or more of the four I¶s:
�Idealized Influence
�Inspirational Motivation
�Intellectual Stimulation
�Individualized ConsiderationIdealized Influence--represents building trust and respect that as
a basis for radical and fundamental change. Idealized influence
results from leaders behaving a role models:
�Demonstrating high standards of ethical and moral standards.
�Sharing risks with followers
�Considering the needs of others over their own
�Using power to move individuals or groups toward
accomplishing their mission and vision, but never for personal
gain.
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Inspirational Motivation--gets the group to believe that the
organization¶s problems can be solved. Team spirit,
enthusiasm, optimism, commitment, and shared vision arisewithin the work group.
Intellectual Stimulation--stimulates followers to be
innovative and creative. Encourages criticism, openness,
flexibility, and develops a climate in which people are notafraid to make mistakes. Everything can be contested and
changed.
Individualized Consideration--attention is paid to individual
needs for achievement and growth.After determining thestrengths and needs of individuals, the leader uses the knowledge
to act a mentor helping followers and colleagues to develop their
potential and take responsibility for their own development.
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�Idealized influence and inspirational leadership more satisfying and
effective than intellectual stimulation and individualizedconsideration (Avolio, 1999; Bass, 1990).
�Transformational leaders receive higher ratings, are perceived tolead more effective organizations, and have subordinates that exertgreater effort than transactional leaders (Yukl, 1998; Bass, 1998)
�Transformational leadership in schools directly influences teacher perceptions of student goal achievement, and student grades(Leithwood, 1994)
�Positively influences three psychological characteristics of staff: perception of school characteristics, commitment tochange, and organizational learning
�Depends upon attending to all four ³I¶s´, with individualizedconsideration as a base
�Support for Leithwood¶s claims from other studies: Silins
(1992), Marks & Printy (2003)
Conclusions
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�Transformation leadership needs further specification: that is,
what aspects of transformation leadership are most effective indifferent situation?
�The evidence suggests that the situation mediates theeffectiveness of transformation leadership; it is no panacea.
�Does transformational leadership influence student
achievement? Little support for the conclusion that it does.
Conclusions
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Key Assumptions and Principles
1. A number of personality and motivation traitsincrease the likelihood that individuals can and willengage in effective leadership efforts to influenceothers.
2. Leadership skills help individuals formulate andimplement solutions to complex social and technicalproblems and to accomplish goals in an effectivefashion.3. Leadership and situational factors displaystrong reciprocal relationships. Leaders exerciseinfluence through situational variables while situationalvariables support and limit leader influence.
Summary
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Key Assumptions and Principles
4. Neglecting task behaviors limits leader influenceon performance outcomes, while discountinginterpersonal relations reduces the satisfaction of followers.
5. A general proposition of contingency models of leadership is that leader traits and skills combine withcharacteristics of the situation to produce leader behaviors which in turn impact performance outcomes.6. Transformational leaders expand ontransactional relationships to manage meaning, toemphasize the importance of the followers¶ emotionalresponses, and to achieve unusually high performanceoutcomes.
Summary
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Key Assumptions and Principles
7. Leading includes not only instrumental andbehavioral activity, but symbolic and cultural actionas well.
Summary