Categories Of Behavior
Unconditioned Conditioned
Voluntary or operant
•Looking•Babbling•Crawling
•Reading•Writing•Fence jumping
Involuntary or respondent
•Pupillary response to bright light•GSR response to loud noise
•GSR when telling a lie•Blushing
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Context of embarrassing situation ->blushing
• Odor of food that once made you sick ->nausea
• Sight of parent while raiding cookie jar ->fear
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Edward L. Thorndike
1874-1949
“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select--doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and, yes, even beggerman thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors” (Watson, 1925).
John B. Watson, father of Behaviorism
Classical Conditioning:
US & CS elicit an involuntary response
US -> UR
CS -> CR
Instrumental Conditioning:Voluntary response produces a reinforcer (reward)
R -> SR
Classical Conditioning
Instrumental conditioning
= Pavlovian Conditioning
= Type S Conditioning
= Operant conditioning
= Trial and error conditioning
= Type R conditioning
LAW OF EFFECT
• Skinner: Rate of emitting responses that are followed by a positive reinforcer is increased; by a negative reinforcer is decreased.
• Thorndike: Responses trained by trial and error.
• Skinner: Responses shaped by method of successive approximation.
•Thorndike: Responses that are followed by pleasurable effect is stamped in; responses followed by unpleasurable (painful events) are stamped out.
Instrumental Conditioning
• Doing chores -> money
• Doing chores -> praise
• Telling a lie to avoid blame -> avoidance
• Putting on a coat to remove -> removal chill
• Getting a speeding ticket -> punishment
Basic Conditioning Procedures
• Instrumental conditioning
– Type R conditioning
– Operant conditioning
– Trial and Error Learning
• Pavlovian Conditioning
– Type S Conditioning
– Respondent Conditioning
TYPES OF REINFORCERS
Positive
• Primary [S+R] food, drink, odors
• Secondary [S+r] approval, money
Negative
•Primary [S-R] loud noise, shock, bright light
•Secondary [S-r] angry look, bad grade, fine
INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING (Type R)
• Nature of reinforcer can vary:
– Positive - S+R, S+r
– Negative - S-R, S-r
• 2-term contingency:
–response -> reinforcement
–R -> SR
–(bar press) -> (food)
– Primary - S+R, S-R
– Secondary - S+r, S-r
CONTINGENCIES OF REINFORCEMENT:
R-> S+R Reward training (primary reinforcement)
R-> S-R Punishment (primary reinforcement)
R-> S+r Positive secondary reinforcement
R-> S-r Negative secondary reinforcement
R -> removes -> S-R Escape training
R -> postpones -> S-R Avoidance training
R -> SR Omission training
Two-term contingency is typically “occasioned” by a discriminative stimulus (SD)
• SD: R -> SR
• light: bar press -> food
• no light: bar press -> no food
• Nature of discriminative stimuli can vary:
–exteroceptive
–proprioceptive
–interoceptive
FUNCTIONS OF A STIMULUS:
Eliciting (US->UR, C->CR)
Reinforcing (S+ R, S-R, S+r, S-r)
Discriminative (SD: R SR;
S : R SR)
Types Of Discriminative Stimuli
• Exteroceptive: Stimuli generated by sensory organs.
• Proprioceptive: Stimuli generated by muscles and tendons, e.g., doing something by “feel” - knowing where you are in the dark
•Interoceptive: Stimuli generated by internal organs; that are innervated by the autonomic nervous system.
Sn-3 :Rn-3 -> Sn-2 :Rn-2 -> Sn-1:Rn-1 -> Sn :Rn->S
turn approach seize press
Skinner’s Theory of Chaining
r/DD r/D r/D R
Schedules Of Reinforcement
• Time (Interval)
– First response after t seconds SR
• Number (Ratio)
–n responses -> SR
Basic Schedules:
• Fixed Ratio (FR)
• Variable Ratio (VR)
•Fixed Interval (FI)
•Variable Interval (VI)
Skinner’s “Theory” of Instrumental Conditioning
• Nature of reinforcer can vary: R -> S [S+R, Sr, S-R, S-r].
• 3-term contingency (Discriminative operant)SD : R -> SR (light: bar press -> food)S : R -> SR (no light: bar press ≠ food)
• Chaining of discriminative operants:
Sn-3:Rn-3 Sn-2:Rn-2 Sn-1:Rn-1 Sn:Rn S
r/DD r/D r/D R
• Two-term contingency: R -> SR
•Nature of discriminative stimulus can vary: –Exteroceptive–Interoceptive–proprioceptive
Skinner’s “Theory” (cont.)
• Schedule of reinforcement can vary: Rn/t S±R
– subject must emit n responses within a particular time frame t.
• Verbal Behavior. Behavior that is reinforced by a member of one’s verbal community.
• Private events. Discriminative responding to proprioceptive or interoceptive stimuli (stimuli under our skin). Sd : r Sr or Sd : r Sr.
•Contingency of reinforcement can vary: R S±R(r)
Skinner [& Freud (& Terrace)] On Consciousness
• Consciousness is a proper subject matter for psychology but it is not an explanation of behavior. It is what has to be explained (e.g., Tom hit Bill because Tom felt angry). – Why did Tom feel angry?– How did Tom know he was angry?
• Consciousness vs. Awareness:–Animals are aware of objects (but only fleetingly).–Humans are conscious of objects (because they can name them).
• Feedback about private events is not as precise as feedback for tacting public events.
• Discriminative control of inner states (tacting) becomes autonomous with experience.
Skinner [& Freud (& Terrace)] On Consciousness
•Consciousness develops because it enhances the social fabric of the verbal community. It provides us with a sense of “other minds”, another person’s hunger, pain, fear, rage, sadness, truthfulness, etc. In this sense, consciousness is adaptive.
–Internal states are inferred by adult (“You seem hungry.”)
Verbal Behavior
• Mands (“demands”), a 2-term contingency:– verbal response SR [”baba” bottle]
• Tacts - [tactus (Latin, “to point”)], a 3-term contingency: – SD: verbal response -> Sr
– [Sight of Tom’s apple]: Mary: “May I please have an apple?” Tom gives Mary an apple.]
•Verbal Behavior. Behavior that is reinforced by a member of one’s verbal community.
Verbal Behavior (con’t.)
Examples of discriminative control of verbal behavior:– echoic behavior:
*Mother says [“dog”]: “dog” “good”–textual behavior:
*Printed word [dog]: “dog” “good”–transcription:
*Write the word [d-o-g]: d-o-g “good”–intraverbal responses:
*Printed word [c-h-I-e-n]: “dog” “bien”*“How are you?”: “Fine thanks” “good” *Printed letters [Na]: “sodium” “good”*“3 x 3”: “9” “good”
Problems with Classical Conditioning
The Equipotentiality principle does not hold: some stimuli belong together (taste + nausea), and some do not (sound + nausea)
Learned taste aversion with long CS - US intervals: conditioning occurs even when the US (nausea) occurs
several hours after the CS (e.g., rabbit meat).