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Centre for Distance & Continuing Education – University of
Peradeniya
Seminar Series for New B.A Candidates (External) – 2018
(Academic Year 2016)
Date: 22.07.2018
Subject: PHYE 102 (Logic and Logical Theory)
Venue: A.T (Arts Theatre)
Session: 01 – (9.00a.m to 11.00a.m)
02 – (11.30a.m to 1.30 p.m)
03 – (2.30p.m to 4.30p.m)
Subject Contents:
Predicate Logic / Theory of Quantification
Logical Fallacies
Indian Logic (Anumana)
Prof P.M. Jamahir
(Professor in Philosophy)
Department of Philosophy
University of Peradeniya
Peradeniya
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PROF. P.M. JAMAHIR, DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA, PERADENIYA. – COPY RIGHT © 2018, P.M.JAMAHIR
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
01. gadpiyj; ju;f;fk;/msthf;ff; Nfhl;ghL (Predicate Logic/ Theory of Quantification)
msTgLj;jg;gl;l vLg;Gf;fis nfhz;liktJk; mNj rkak;
vLg;Gf;fspd; cs;shu;e;j ju;f;f mikg;gpd; mbg;gilapy; nraw;gLtJkhd xU
FwpaPl;Lj; ju;f;fNk gadpiyj; ju;f;fk; my;yJ msthf;ff; Nfhl;ghlhFk;. RUf;fkhf
tiuaWg;gjhapd; vLg;gsitapay; KiwNghy gadpiyj; ju;f;fKk; xU FwpaPl;L
msitapay; KiwahFk;. mjpYk; nkhopapd; vOtha;> gadpiy kw;Wk;
thf;fpaq;fSld; njhu;Ggl;l ju;f;f KiwahFk;.
,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l cWg;G thf;fpaq;fisf; nfhz;likAk;
$l;L thf;fpaq;fsy;yhj my;yJ gpw vLg;Gf;fis cWg;Gf;fsha;f; nfhz;L mikAk;
$l;nlLg;gpy;yhj vspa vLg;Gf;fis mtw;wpd; ju;f;f mikg;G mbg;gilapy;
tpgupg;gjw;Fk;> FwpaPlhf;Ftjw;Fk;> msTgLj;jg;gl;l vLg;Gf;fshd thjq;fspd;
tha;g;gpid Nrhjpf;fTk; tpUj;jp nra;ag;gl;l etPd msitapay; KiwNa ,JthFk;.
vLg;gsitapay; vLg;Gf;fSf;fpilapyhd njhlu;ig kl;LNk ftdj;jpy; nfhs;fpd;wJ.
Mdhy; gadpiyj; ju;f;fk; vOtha;-gadpiy gjq;fSf;fpilapyhd njhlu;ig
ftdj;jpy; nfhs;fpwJ. NkYk;> ghuk;gupa msitapaypd; FiwghLfis Rl;bf;fhl;lTk;
mf;FiwghLfs; vt;tifapy; epfo;fpd;wd vd;gijAk; Rl;bf;fhl;lTk; ,k;Kiw
cjTfpd;wJ.
gadpiyj; ju;f;fj;jpd; FwpaPl;L nkhop
(Symbolic Language of Predicate Logic)
gadpiyj; ju;f;fj;jpd; xU FwpaPl;L nkhopia tpUj;jp nra;tjw;F gpd;tUk; mk;rq;fs;
mbg;gilahdjhFk;:
1. gadpiyfs; (Predicate)
gadpiyj; ju;f;fj;jpy; gadpiyfs; vd;gJ vspa thf;fpak; xd;wpd;
gz;GfisAk; (Characteristics), njhlu;ghf;f ntspg;ghLfisAk; (Relation
expression) Fwpg;gjhfTs;sJ. gadpiyfSf;fhf Mq;fpy mfutupir njhlupy;
cs;s F njhlf;fk; O tiuAs;s ngupa vOj;Jf;fs; (Capital) gad;gLj;jg;gl
Ntz;Lk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf @
fpspNahngl;uh ,uhzpahths;.
F: a ,uhzp
A: fpspNahngl;uh
FwpaPL: FA
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
Fwpg;G: ngau;fSf;Fk; ngau; Rl;Lk; nrhw;fSf;Fk; (mtd;> mts;> ,e;jg; Gj;jfk;>
,J xU Kay; Nghd;wd) A njhlf;fk; E tiuAs;s ngupa Mq;fpy vOj;Jf;fs;
gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;. ,q;F tpN\lkhff; Fwpg;gplNtz;ba mk;rk;
vd;dntd;why; gadpiyf; FwpaPL njhlu;ghf ‘a’ vdf; Fwpg;gpLtJ mtrpakhFk;.
,J xU ghuk;gupakhFk;.
2. jdpad; khwpypfs; (Individual Constants)
gadpiyj; ju;f;fj;jpd; jdpad;fspd; (vOtha;)> clikg; nghUshfNt
gadpiyfs; (gz;Gfs;) Rl;bf;fhl;lg;gLfpd;wd. mq;F Fwpg;gpLk; gz;G
vj;jdpaDf;FupaJ vd;gijf; Fwpg;gpLtjw;fhf mj;jdpaDf;Fupa ngaiuf;
nfhLf;fpNwhk;. ,e;jg; ngau;fs; jdpad;fisf; Fwpf;Fk; FwpaPLfshf (khwpyp)
miktJld; Fwpg;gpl;l re;ju;g;gj;jpy; khwhg; ngWkhdj;ijf; nfhz;bUg;gjhYk;
mtw;wpid jdpad; khwpypfs; vd miog;gu;
gadpiyj; ju;f;f mbg;gilapy; FwpaPl;lhf;fj;jpid Nkw;nfhs;Sk; NghJ
jdpad;fisf; Fwpg;gjw;fhf (ngau;fSf;Fk; ngau; Rl;Lk; nrhw;fSf;Fk;)
Mq;fpy mfutupir njhlupy; cs;s A njhlf;fk; E tiuAs;s ngupa
vOj;Jf;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
M[pj; xU ghlfd;
G:a ghlfd;
A: M[pj;
FwpaPL: GA
3. jdpad; khwpfs; (Individual Variables)
Fwpg;gpl;lnjhU gadpiyia gy;NtW jdpad;fs; ngw;wpUf;fyhk;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@ “Xu; ,iraikg;ghsu;” vd;w gadpiyia tp];tehjd;>
,isauh[h> Njth> u ;̀khd;> `up]; n[auh[; vd gy;NtW jdpad;fs;
nfhz;bUf;Fk; NghJ mjid czu;j;j gad;gLtNj jdpad; khwpahFk;. mjhtJ
khwpfs; khWk; ngWkhdj;ijf; nfhz;lit vd;gNj ,q;F czu;j;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
khwpfSf;fhf gad;gLj;jf; $ba FwpaPLfs; Mq;fpy mfu tupirapy; rpwpa
vOj;Jf;fshd x,y,z my;yJ a,b,c vd;wthwhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
vLjJf;fhl;lhf@
tp];tehjd; Xu; ,iraikg;ghsu; - HA
,isauh[h Xu; ,iraikg;ghsu; - HB
Njth Xu; ,iraikg;ghsu; - HC
u ;̀khd; Xu; ,iraikg;ghsu; - HD
`up]; n[auh[; Xu; ,iraikg;ghsu; HE
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
Mf> H vd;w gadpiyiaAvd;w jdpad; ngWfpd;wJ.
Fwpg;G: ,q;F gy;NtW jdpad;fSf;fpilNa (A,B,C,D,E),iraikg;ghsu; vd;w
xU nghJr;rhay; fhzg;gLtjhy; ,J Nghd;w jdpg;nghUs; vLg;Gf;fspd;
nghJr;rhaiy ntspg;gLj;j “ϰ” vDk; jdpad; khwpiaAk; gad;gLj;;j KbAk;.
mjhtJ>Hϰ vd vkJ FwpaPl;il vOj KbAk;. Mf> jdpad; khwpypfs;
(HA,HB,HC) vDk; vLg;Gf;fs; jdpad; khwpfshy; gjpyPL nra;ag;gLk; NghJ
mit vLg;G rhu;ghf (Hϰ)vd mikfpd;wJ.
msthf;fpfs; (Quantifiers)
vLg;gpy; “midj;Jk;”> “ahTk;”> “vy;yhk;” vd;w msTr;nrhw;fs; jhk; Fwpg;gpLk;
tFg;gpd; KO mq;fj;Jtj;ijAk; Fwpf;Fk; epiw msTr;nrhw;fshf ,Ug;gjdhy;
mtw;iw epiw msthf;fpfs; vd;gu;. ,jid (Λ) vDk; FwpaPl;by; Fwpg;gu;.
mt;thNw “rpy”> “gy”> “ngUk;ghYk;”> Nghd;w nrhw;fs; Fwpg;gpl;l vOthapd;
rpy mq;fj;Jtq;fisr;; Rl;Ltjhy; ,tw;iw Fiw msthf;fp vd;gu;. ,jid (Ѵ )
vDk; FwpaPl;by; Fwpg;gu;. ,e;j msthf;fpfSld; ϰ ,y,z /a,b,c Nghd;w khwpfis
cld; gpuNahfpf;Fk; NghJ mJ vy;yh re;ju;g;gq;fSk; tiuaWf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ
my;yJ vy;iyg;gLj;jg;gl;ljhFk;. mjhtJ msTf;Fgl;ljhFk; (Bound)
vd;gjif; Fwpf;fpd;wJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf;Λϰ , Ѵϰ vd mikAk;. Mf> X vDk;
khwp vy;yhr; re;ju;g;gq;fSk; tiuaWf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ vd;gijf; Fwpj;J epw;Fk;
xU #j;jpu tbtj;ij Λϰ (FϰGϰ ) vd vOjyhk;.
vLg;G FwpaPL
A Λϰ(FϰGϰ)
E Λϰ(Fϰ~Gϰ)
I Ѵϰ(Fϰ^Gϰ)
O Ѵϰ (Fϰ ^~Gϰ )
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
msthf;f mDkhd tpjpfs; (Rules of Quantification)
msthf;f vLg;Gf;fspdhy; mikAk; thjq;fspd; typikia ep&gpf;f gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
gpuj;jpNaf mDkhd tpjpfis msthf;f mDkhd tpjpfs; vdg;gLk;. ,t;tpjpfs; epiw
msthf;fpfSld; (Λϰ ) njhlu;Ggl;lhjhf epiwj; jdpahf;fk; kw;Wk; cs;nghUs; (Fiw)
msT toq;fpAld; (Ѵϰ ) njhlu;Ggl;ljhf cs;nghUs; jdpahf;fk;> cs;nghUs;
nghJikahf;fk; vd ,uz;Lkhf %d;W tpjpfis mwpayhk;:
I. epiw jdpadhf;f tpjp (ep.j) (Principle of Universal Instantiation)
epiw msthf;fj;jpypUe;J ve;jnthU jdpaidAk; typjhd
Kiwapdhy; mDkhdpf;f KbAk; vd ,t;tpjp $Wfpd;wJ. ,t;tpjpapd;
FwpaPl;Ltbtk;:
𝛬𝛼𝜙𝛼
𝜙𝛿 =
𝛬𝜘𝐹𝜘
𝐹𝑦 =
𝛬𝑥𝐹𝑥
𝐹𝐴 =
Λϰ(F𝑥G𝑥)
FAGA
,t;tpjpapd; gpuNahfj;ij gpd;tUk; thjj;jpd; %yk; Gupe;J nfhs;syhk;;
vy;yhkdpju;fSk; ,wg;gtu;
mup];Nuhl;by; xUkdpjd;
/mup];Nuhl;by; ,wg;gtu;
RUf;fj;jpl;lk;: F:a kdpju;fs;
G:a ,wg;gtu;
A: mup];Nuhl;by;
FwpaPL: Λ𝑥 (F𝑥G𝑥).FA / GA
1. fhl;Lf.GA
2. Λ𝑥(F𝑥G𝑥) ( v.$I)
3. (FAGA) (2 ep.j)
4. FA (v.$II)
5. GA (3>4 tp.tp)
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
Fwpg;G: ,e;jg; ngWifapy; 3k; tupapy; 2k; tupia
epiwj; jdpahf;fk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. epiwj; jdpahf;f tpjpapd; gb msthf;f
FwpaPl;L tbtnkhd;wpd; msthf;fj;jpid (Λϰ ) ePf;fp ‘𝑥’ vDk; jdpad; khwpf;Fg;
gjpyhf ‘A’ vDk; ngau; FwpaPl;bdhy; gjpyPL nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.
II. cs;nghUs; nghJikahf;f tpjp (c.ngh)
The principle of Existential Generalization)
VjhtnjhU cz;ikahd vLg;G
rhu;gpd; gjpyPl;Lj; jdpadpypUe;J me;j vLg;Gr; rhu;gpd; Fiw msthf;fj;jpid
mDkhdpf;fyhk; vd;fpwJ ,t;tpjp. ,t;tpjpapd;
FwpaPl;L tbtk; gpd;tUkhW mikAk;;
фδ
V𝛼фα =
Fy
V𝑥F𝑥 =
FA
V𝑥F𝑥 =
𝐹𝐴^𝐺𝐴
𝑉𝑥(𝐹𝑥^𝐺𝑥)
,t;tpjpapd; gpuNahfj;ijgpd;tUk; thjj;jpd; %yk; Gupe;Jnfhs;syhk;.
Λx(F𝑥G𝑥). Λ𝑥 (G𝑥H𝑥) / FAѴ𝑥 (G𝑥ΛH𝑥)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
fhl;Lf.FAѴ𝑥 (G𝑥ΛH𝑥)
FA
fhl;Lf.Ѵ𝑥(G𝑥ΛH𝑥)
Λx(F𝑥G𝑥)
(FAGA)
GA
Λx(G𝑥H𝑥)
(GAHA)
HA
(GA^HA)
Ѵ𝑥(G𝑥^𝐻𝑥)
(ep.ng.v)
(v.$I )
(4 ep.j)
(2>5 tp.tp)
(v.$ II)
(7 ep.j)
(6>8 tp.tp)
(6>9 ,.tp)
(10 c.ngh)
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
Fwpg;G: ,e;jg; ngWifapy; 5k; tupapy; 4k; tupepiwj; jdpahf;fk; nra;ag;glLs;sJ.
mt;thNw 8k; tupapy; 7k; tupAk; epiwj; jdpahf;fk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. ,Wjpahf 11k;
tupapy; 10k; tup cs;nghUs; nghJikahf;fk; nra;ag;gl;L ngWif Kw;Wg; ngw;Ws;sJ.
III. cs;nghUs; jdpahf;f tpjp (c.j) (The principle of Existential Instantiation)
vLg;G rhu;nghd;wpd; Fiw msthf;fj;jpypUe;J mjdJ gjpyPl;Lj; jdpadpd;
cz;ikia mDkhdpg;gij ,t;tpjp tpsf;FfpwJ. ,t;tpjpapd;
FwpaPl;Ltbtk; gpd;tUkhW;
Vαфα
фβ =
VxFx
Fy/Fa =
Vx(Fx^Gx)
(Fy^Gy)/(Fa^Ga) =
Vx(Fx^Gy)
(Fʒ^Gy)/(Fa^Gy)
,t;tpjpapd; gpuNahfj;jpid gpd;tUk; thjj;jpd; %yk; Gupe;Jnfhs;syhk;;
Λϰ (FϰGϰ )(Ѵϰ FϰѴϰGϰ )
1. fhl;Lf.Λϰ (FϰGϰ )(Ѵϰ FϰѴϰGϰ )
2. Λϰ (FϰGϰ ) (ep.ng.v)
3. fhl;Lf (Ѵϰ FϰѴϰGϰ )
4. Ѵϰ Fϰ (ep.ng.v)
5. Fy (4c.j)
6. FyGy (2 ep.j)
7. Gy (5>6 tp.tp)
8. ѴϰGϰ (7 c.ngh)
Fwpg;G: ,e;jg; ngWifapy; 5k; tupapy; 4k; tupcs; nghUs;
jdpahf;fk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. 6k; tpupapy; 2k; tupiaepiw jdpahf;fk;
nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. ,Wjpahf 8k; tupapy; 7k; tupia cs;nghUs; nghJikahf;fk; nra;J
ngWif Kw;Wg; ngw;Ws;sJ mwpaj;jf;fJ.
Nkw;$wpa %d;W tpjpfspd; RUf;fj;ij gpd;tUkhW $wyhk;;
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
I. epiwj;jdpahf;ftpjp (ep.j)
𝛬𝑥(𝐺𝜘Hϰ) vd;gJ ngWifapd; tupahf ,Uf;Fkhdhy; mg;NghJ epiwj;
jdpahf;f tpjpiag; gad;gLj;jp (𝐺𝐴𝐻𝐴)vd;gijg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;sKbAk;.
mNjNghy; (GyHy) vdTk; ngw;Wf; nfhs;syhk;. 𝛬𝑥𝐻𝑥 ,Ue;jhy; Hʒ ngw;Wf;
nfhs;s KbAk;.
II. cs;nghUs; nghJikahf;f tpjp ( c.ngh)
Fϰ vd;gJ ngWifapd; tupahf tUk; NghJ cs;nghUs; nghJikahf;fy;
tpjpiag; gad;gLj;jp Ѵ𝑥𝐹𝑥 vd;gijg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;sKbAk;. mNjNghy~H𝑥
tUk;NghJ Ѵ𝑥~H𝑥 vdg;ngw KbAk;. (F𝑥^G𝑥) vd tUk;NghJ Ѵ𝑥 (F𝑥^G𝑥)
vdTk;> Λy(FzGy) vdtUk; NghJ Ѵ𝑥𝛬𝑦(𝐹𝑥Gy) vdTk; ngw;Wf;nfhs;s
KbAk;.
III. cs;nghUs; jdpadhf;f tpjp (c.j) Fiwj; jdpadhf;fk;
ngWif xd;wpd; tupirapy; Ѵ𝑥(𝐹𝑥^𝐺𝑥)vd;gJ ,Ue;jhy; mjw;F cs;nghUs;
jdpahf;ftpjpiag; gad;gLj;jp (Fy^Gy) vdg;ngw KbAk;. Ѵϰ Fϰ vd tUk;NghJ
Fy vd;Wk; ngw KbAk;. khwpfs; Gjpaitahf ,Ug;gjhapd; Ѵ𝜘(𝐹𝑥v𝐺𝑥)
vd;gjid Fiwjdpadhf;fk; epfo;j;Jfpd;w NghJ (Fy v Gy) vdTk; my;yJ
(Fʒ VGy) vdTk; ngw;Wf; nfhs;s KbAk;. Ѵy(𝐹𝑥^𝐺𝑦)^𝐻𝐵 vdTk; Fiwj;
jdpahf;fj;jpy; ,Ue;J (𝐹𝑥^𝐺ʒ)^𝐻𝐵 vdTk; #j;jpu tbtj;ijAk; ngwyhk;.
V𝑥~𝐹𝑥 ,Ue;jhy; ~Fy vdg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;s KbAk;.
gapw;rp- I
1. fPo;tUk; FwpaPl;L thjq;fis typjhdJ vdg; ngWif Kiw %yk; fhl;Lf.
I. II. Λ𝑥(F𝑥^𝐺𝑥)/ Λ𝑥G𝑥
1. fhl;Lf. Λ𝑥G𝑥
2. Λ𝑥(F𝑥^𝐺𝑥) v.$
3. Fϰ ^Gϰ 2 ep.j
4. Gϰ 3 v.tp
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
II. Λ𝑥(𝐹𝑥𝐺𝑥). Λ𝑥[G𝑥(𝐻𝑥 v 𝐼𝑥)]. Λ𝑥(F𝑥~𝐼𝑥) /(Ѵ𝑥F𝑥Ѵ𝑥H𝑥)
1 fhl;Lf.(Ѵ𝑥F𝑥Ѵ𝑥H𝑥)
2 Ѵ𝑥F𝑥 (ep.ng.v)
3 Fy (2. c.j)
4 Λ𝑥(𝐹𝑥𝐺𝑥) (v.$I)
5 (FyGy) (4 ep.j)
6 Gy (3>5 tp.tp)
7 Λ𝑥[G𝑥(𝐻𝑥v𝐼𝑥)] (v.$II)
8 [Gy(Hy v Iy) (7 ep;.j)
9 (Hy v Iy) (6>8 tp.tp)
10 Λ𝑥(F𝑥~𝐼𝑥) (v.$ III)
11 (Fy~Iy) (10 ep.j)
12 ~Iy (3>11 tp.tp)
13 Hy (9>12 k.tp)
14 Ѵ𝑥𝐻𝑥 (13 c.j)
gapw;rp II
RUf;fj; jpl;lj;jpid je;J fPo;tUk; thjj;jpid FwpaPl;lhf;fk; nra;J mjid
typjhdJ vd ngWif Kiw %yk; fhl;Lf.
mjp\;lrhypfs; midtUk; mwpTs;stu;fs;
rpy mjp\;lrhypfs; tho;f;ifiaj; njhiyj;jtu;fs;
MfNt mwpTs;stu;fspy; rpyu; tho;f;ifiaj; njhiyj;jtu;fs;
RUf;fj; jpl;lk;: F:a mjp\;lrhypfs;
G:a mwpTs;stu;fs;
H:a tho;f;ifiaj; njhiyj;jtu;fs;
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PROF. P.M. JAMAHIR, DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA, PERADENIYA. – COPY RIGHT © 2018, P.M.JAMAHIR
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
I. Λϰ (FϰGϰ ). Ѵϰ (Fϰ ^Hϰ ) /Ѵϰ (Gϰ ^Hϰ )
1. fhl;Lf.Ѵϰ(Gϰ^Hϰ)
2. Ѵϰ(Fϰ^Hϰ) (v.$ II)
3. (Fy^Hy) (2 c.j)
4. Λϰ (FϰGϰ ) (v.$ I)
5. (FyGy) (4ep.j)
6. Fy (3 v.tp)
7. Gy (5>6 tp.tp)
8. Hy 3 v.tp)
9. (Gy^Hy) (7>8 ,.tp)
10. Ѵϰ(Gϰ^Hϰ) (9 c.ngh)
Fwpg;G: Nkw;fhl;ba gadpiyj; ju;f;f FwpaPl;L tbtpy; Kjy; vL$w;whf epiw
msthf;fkhf ,Ue;j NghjpYk; ,uz;lhtjhfTs;s Fiwmsthf;f vL$w;Nw
nra;iff;F vLj;Jf; nfhs;sg;gl;Ls;sJ. Mf> gadpiyj; ju;f;f ep&gz Kiwapy;
epiwj; jdpahf;fkh? cs;nghUs; jdpahf;fkh? Kjypy; nra;iff;F vLg;gJ vdf;
Nfl;lhy; cs;nghUs; jdpahf;fj;jpd; gpd;Ng epiwj; jdpahf;fkhFk;. Vnddpy; Fiw
msthf;fj;jpypUe;J mDkhdpf;fg;gLk; mjdJ gjpyPl;Lj; jdpadpd; ngau; FwpaPL
Gjpjhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd typAWj;JtjyhFk;.
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
II. Λy(Fϰ ^Gy) /Fϰ ^Gϰ
1. fhl;Lf.
Fϰ ^Gϰ
2. Λy(Fϰ ^Gy) (v.$)
3. Fϰ ^Gϰ (2 ep.j)
III.Λϰ FϰΛyFy
1 fhl;Lf.Λϰ FϰΛyFy
2. fhl;Lf.Λϰ FϰΛyFy
3. Λϰ Fϰ (ep.ng.v)
4. fhl;Lf. ΛyFy
5. Fy (3 ep.j)
6. fhl;Lf.ΛyFyΛϰ Fϰ
7. ΛyFy (ep.ng.v)
8. fhl;Lf.Λϰ Fϰ
9. Fϰ (7 ep.j)
10. Λϰ FϰΛyFy (2>6 ep.ep.,.ep.tp)
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PROF. P.M. JAMAHIR, DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA, PERADENIYA. – COPY RIGHT © 2018, P.M.JAMAHIR
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
IV. Fϰ ^Gy/Λʒ (Fʒ ^Gʒ )
1. fhl;Lf. Λʒ (Fʒ ^Gʒ )
2. fhl;Lf. Λϰ Fϰ
3. Fϰ ^Gy (v.$)
4. Fϰ (3 v.tp)
5. fhl;Lf. ΛyGy
6. Fϰ ^Gy (v.$)
7. Gy (6 v.tp)
8. Fʒ (2 ep.j)
9. Gʒ (5 ep.j)
10. (Fʒ ^Gʒ ) (8>9 ,>tp)
msitapay; Nghypfs; (Logical Fallacies)
msitapayhdJ nrk;ikahd rpe;jid tsu;r;rpf;F cjTtNjhL> gy;NtW Jiwfspd;
tsu;r;rpf;F mbg;gilahd Mokhd rpe;jid xOq;if Vw;gL;j;Jfpd;wJ. ,r;rpe;jidapy;
Vw;gLfpd;w jtWfis jtpu;j;J mjid rPu; nra;tjd; %yk; nka;awpT ngwg;gLfpd;wJ.
,jw;F Nghyp gw;wp mwpT mtrpakhFk;.
msitapayhsu;fs; “Nghyp” vDk; nrhy;iy ifahSk; NghJ mJ VjhtnjhU jtwhd
a+fj;ijNah my;yJ Nghypahd ek;gpf;ifiaNah Fwpg;gplhky; xUtif khjpupj;
jtWfis (Typical errors) Fwpg;gpLtjhf nfhs;tu;. mjhtJ rhjhuz Ngr;R tof;fpy;
nghJthf vOfpd;w jtWk; mit njd;gLfpd;w thjq;fis Kw;whf xopj;J tpLfpd;w
jtWkhFk;. xt;nthU NghypAk; gpioahd thjj;jpd; xUtifahFk;. xU Fwpg;gpl;l
tif jtW njd;gLfpd;w xUthjk; me;j Nghypiag; Guptjhfr; nrhy;yg;gLfpd;wJ.
vdNtjhd; epahapj;jypy; cs;s xUjtNw “Nghyp” vd tiutpyf;fzg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
epahag;gLj;jy; gpioahfg; Nghff; $ba mjpf topfs; cz;L. typjhdJ Nghyj;
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PROF. P.M. JAMAHIR, DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA, PERADENIYA. – COPY RIGHT © 2018, P.M.JAMAHIR
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
Njhd;Wfpd;w typjw;w thjq;fisNa ,t;thW $Wfpd;Nwhk;. cz;ikapy; vk;khy;
Vw;Wf;nfhs;s Kbahj typjw;w thjq;fs; typjhdJ Nghyj; Njhw;wkspg;gpd; mitNa
Nghypfs; vdg;gLk;. “thjq;fs; kdpju;fisg; Nghy mbf;fb Vkhw;Wk; jd;ik tha;e;jd”
vd gpNsl;Nlh $WtJk; mtjhdj;jpw;FupaJ.
Nghypfs; Mgj;jhdit Vnddpy; vq;fspy; mNefu; gy;NtW re;ju;g;gq;fspy;
Kl;lhsf;fg;gLfpd;wdu;. MfNt typjhdJ Nghyj; njd;glf; $ba Mdhy; Nrhjidapd;
NghJ mt;thW my;y vd ep&gzkhfpd;w thjj;jpd; xUtifahf Nghypia
tiutpyf;fzk; nra;fpd;Nwhk;. mit njspthf tpsq;fpf; nfhs;sg;gLfpd;w NghJ
jtWfs; jtpu;f;fg;gl $bjhfTs;sjhy; ,e;j jtwhd thjq;fis Muha;e;J ed;ik
gaf;Fk; Kd;ndr;rupf;ifahf ,Ug;gJ Kw;ghJfhg;gpw;F rkkhFk;.
cz;ikapy; xU Fwpg;gpl;l thjk; xU Nghypiag; Gupfpd;wjh? vd;gJ me;j thjj;jpy;
,lk; ngWfpd;w nrhw;fSf;F toq;fg;gLfpd;w mu;j;jj;jpy;> fUj;jpNyNa
jq;fpapUf;fpd;wJ. thjq;fspy; vj;jid tif jtWfs;> Nghypfs; ,dq;fhzg;glyhk;?
KjyhtJ xOq;F Kiwikahd msitapayhsuhd mup];Nuhl;by; (The First
systematic Logician) gjpd;%d;W tifg; Nghypfis ,dq;fz;lhu;. mz;ikf; fhyq;fspy;
Ehw;Wf;Fkjpfkhd Nghypfisf; nfhz;l xUgl;bay; tsu;r;rpaile;Js;sJk;
ftdj;jpw;FupaJ. nghJthdJk; Vkhw;Wk; jd;id nfhz;lJkhd ju;f;fg; Nghyp
tbtq;fs; ,uz;L tifahf gpupj;J tpsf;fg;gLk;.
I. epakg;Nghyp
II. epakkpy; Nghyp
,g;Nghyp tbtq;fis tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tJ my;yJ mwpe;J nfhs;tJ epahag;gLj;jypy;
cs;s gpur;rpidf;Fupa jtWfisf; fz;Lgpbf;ff; $ba ty;yikia toq;Fk; vdyhk;.
epakg;Nghyp (Formal Fallacies)
msitapay; tpjpfs;> mikg;Gfs;> xOq;Ffs;> epakq;fs; kPWg;gLfpd;w NghJ
epfo;fpd;w ju;f;fj; jtNw epakg;Nghyp vdg;gLk;. vdNt thjj;jpdNjh vL$w;wpdNjh
fUj;jg;gw;wp Nehf;fhJ kPwg;gl;l tpjpfis kl;Lk; Nehf;FtJ epkag; NghypahFk;.
fPo;tUk; cjhuzq;fis Nehf;FNthk;@
fy;tp fw;w midtUk; nka;apayhsu; Mtu; - A
Gj;jpAs;s midtUk; nka;;apayhsu; Mtu; - A
/ Gj;jpAs;s midtUk; fy;tpfw;Nwhu; Mtu; - A
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PROF. P.M. JAMAHIR, DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA, PERADENIYA. – COPY RIGHT © 2018, P.M.JAMAHIR
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
,q;F epakg;Nghypapy; cs;slq;Fk; mDkhdg; Nghyp Vw;gl;Ls;sJ. mjhtJ Clf
mDkhdj;jpy; Jha mWjp epahaj;njhilapd; msT tpjpapd;gb> “eLg;gjk;
vL$w;Wf;fspy; Xuplj;jpyhtJ tpahg;jpaile;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.” vDk; tpjpia kPwp
eLg;gj tpahg;jpailahg; Nghyp Vw;gl;Ls;sJ. ,Nj Nghd;W ehw;gjg; Nghyp> rhj;jpag;
gjj;jpd; Kiwaw;w Nghyp> gf;fg;gjj;jpd; Kiwaw;w Nghyp> ,U vjpu;kiw vL$w;Wg;
Nghyp> ,Ukiw vL$w;Wg;Nghyp> fhupa cld;ghl;Lg; Nghyp kw;Wk; fhupa kWg;Gg;
Nghypfs;> cwo;Tg; Nghyp kw;Wk; cld; mDkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk; gy;NtW tif
epakg;Nghyp tbtq;fisAk; khztu;fs; cjuzj;Jld; fhl;l KbAk;.
epakkpy;g; Nghypfs; (Informal fallacies)
epakg; Nghypfs; vkJ rhjhuz ciuahlypy; Vw;gLtJ tof;fk;. rhjhuz ciuahlypy;
epfOk; re;Njfk;> njsptpd;ik> rpf;fy;> nghUj;jkpd;dik Nghd;wtw;wpd; fhuzkhf
Vw;gLk; nghUs; rhu;e;j my;yJ fUj;j uPjpahd NghypfNs epakkpy;g; Nghypfs; vdg;gLk;.
vdNt thjj;jpd; mikg;gpy; ftdk; nrYj;jhJ mjd; nghUspy; ftdk; nrYj;Jfpd;w
NghJ ahjhapDk; jtWfs; Gyg;gLkhapd; mq;F epakkpy; Nghyp vw;gl;Ls;sJ
vdf;fUjyhk;. epakkpy;g; Nghypfspd; fPo; gytPdkhd njhFj;jwpg; Nghypfs; (fhfjhypa
epahag;Nghyp> khf;fs; epahag;Nghyp> mwpahik epahag;Nghyp> Neuy; jlj;jy; Nghyp)
,lk;ngWtJk; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fJ. ,dp Kf;fpa epakkpy;g; Nghypfs; rpytw;iw
cjhuzq;fSld; Nehf;fyhk; :
1. KbT Nkw;nfhs;sy; Nghyp ( Petitio Principii)
KbT Nkw;nfhs;sy; Nghyp vd;gJ $wpaJ $wy; Nghyp tifiar; rhu;e;j njhFj;jwp
ju;f;fg; NghypahFk;. ,g;Nghyp vLg;Gf;fis Nghjpa Mjhukpd;wp ntspg;gil
cz;ikahff; fUjpf; nfhs;sy; vDk; nghUspy; tUfpd;wJ. ,jd;gb epWtg;gl
Ntz;ba vLg;nghd;W ep&gzkpd;wp Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gLtNj KbT Nkw;nfhs;sy;
NghypahFk;. NkYk; ehk; tpUk;Gk; cz;ikfis my;yJ vkf;F gof;fkhd
cz;ikfis ntspg;gilahd cz;ikfs; vd kaq;FtjhYk; ,g;Nghyp Vw;;gLfpd;wJ.
Fiw vLg;NghL ,ize;j epiw vLg;G xd;wpid vJtpj Mjhukpd;wp
VW;Wf;nfhs;tjhYk; ,g;Nghyp Vw;gLfpwJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
I. “mjpNtf g];tz;b xd;W ghupa tpgj;jpy; Guz;lJ. mJ mjpNtfkhf Xba
g];tz;bahf ,Ug;gjdhy; jhd;”
,q;F mjpNtf g];tz;b xd;W ghupa tpgj;jpy; Guz;lJ vd;w $w;W
ep&gpf;fg;glhky; mJ mjpNtfkhf Xba g];tz;b vd;w juitNa Kbthff;
fhl;bajhy; ,t;Tiu KbT Nkw;nfhs;sy; NghypahFk;.
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
II. nka;apayhsu;fs; Ez;zwpTs;stu;fs;. mtu;fs; mt;thwpy;yhtpl;lhy; mtu;fs;
nka;apayhsu;fs; my;y.
,q;F nka;apayhsu;fs; Ez;zwpTs;stu;fs; vd;w $w;W
ep&gpf;fg;glhky; jhd; vLj;Jf;nfhz;l Kbtpw;F Vw;g fhuzq;fis nfhLf;Fk;
NghJ KbTk; mjw;Nfw;w tifapy; thjkhf mike;jpUg;gjdhy; ,t;thwhd
Nghyp Vw;gLfpwJ. ,j;jifa Nghyp tbtq;fis %d;whf Nehf;fyhk;@
i. Kbtpd; $WNkw;Nfhly; Nghyp
ii. rf;fu ep&gzg;Nghyp
iii. nghUe;j KbTg;Nghyp
i. Kbtpd; $WNkw;Nfhly; Nghyp (Fallacy of presumption)
,t;tifg;Nghyp vL$w;Wk; KbT $w;Wk; xd;whf miktjhy; Vw;gLtjhFk;.
mjhtJ vL$w;wpd; xU gFjpiaNa kPz;Lk; Kbthf Kd;itf;fg;gLk;. ,q;F
mDkhdj;jpd; Xu; mbNyNa Nghyp epfo;fpd;wJ. vLj;Jfhl;lhf@
I. mgpd; kdpjid cwq;fr; nra;fpwJ Vnddpy; mjw;F epj;jpiua+l;Lk; Fzk;
cs;sjhy; vd;W $Wk; NghJk;>
II. kfpe;j rpe;jidapd; fPo; Kd;nkhopag;gl;l Xuhapuk; ghlrhiyfs; rl;lj;jpdhy;
vy;yhg; ghlrhiyfspYk; Nghjidapd; juk; caUkhdhy; ,J ehl;bd;
fy;tpapd; juj;ij cau;j;Jtij Nehf;fkhff; nfhz;lJ vd fy;tp mikr;ru;
thjpLk; NghJk; Kbtpd; $WNkw;Nfhly; Nghyp ,lk;ngw;wpUg;gij
mtjhdpf;fyhk;.
ii. rf;fu ep&gzg;Nghyp (Fallacy of Circle in reasoning)
KbT Nkw;Nfhsy; Nghypapd; gpupnjhU tbtkhd rf;fu ep&gzg;Nghypia Roy;
epahak;> tl;l tbtg;Nghyp vdTk; miog;gu;. vL$w;wpypUe;J vLj;Jf; nfhs;Sk;
KbthdJ ,ilapy; ngupaNjh rpwpaNjh ,ilntsp tpl;l gpd;du; Kbthf
jug;gLk; NghJ ,g;Nghyp epfo;fpd;wJ. jutpy; vLf;fg;gl;l KbthdJ ,ilapy;
NtW rpy thu;j;ijg; gpuNahfq;fspd; gpd; kPz;Lk; jutpy; $wpaNj Kbthff; $Wk;
KiwiaNa rf;fu ep&gzg;Nghyp vdg;gLk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
i. tpQ;Qhd Kiw vd;w ghlk; tpQ;Qhdj;jpd; Kiwfis Muha;fpwJ.
tpQ;Qhd Kiwfs; tpQ;Qhd uPjpahdit. MfNt tpQ;Qhd Kiw
tpQ;Qhd uPjpahdJ.
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LOGIC - PHILOSOPHY
ii. gads;sit mwpTs;sjhFk;. ,dpikahdit mwpTs;sjhFk;. mwpTs;sJ
,dpikahdJ. MfNt gaDs;sJ mwpTs;sJ jhd; vd mikAk; NghJ
Nghyp Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
iii. nghUe;j KbTg;Nghyp (Fallacy of Irrelevant Conclusion)
ju;f;f uPjpahd Kbit vLf;Fk; NghJ ,g;Nghyp epfo;fpd;wJ. Kbtpd; NghJ Neu;
gu];guj;ij Vw;Wf;nfhz;L vjpu;kiw Vw;gLtjhf ,jpy; Rl;bf;fhl;lg;gLfpwJ.
Neuy; ngWif KiwapYk; nghUe;jh KbT gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
vL$w;WfSf;fpilNa njhlu;G ,Ug;gJ Nghy; ,Uf;Fk; Mdhy; ed;F
mtjhdpj;jhy; mJ nghUe;jh Kbthf mike;jpUf;Fk;. vL$w;Wf;Fk;
KbT$w;Wf;Fk; ,ilapy; ju;f;fg; nghUj;jkpy;yhj NghJ Vw;gLk; Nghypahf
,jidf; nfhs;tu;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
cyfpy; Ntnwe;j ehl;ilAk; tpl ,yq;ifapy; jhd; mjpfstpyhd thfd
rhujp gapw;rpg; ghlrhiyfs; cs;sd. mjpfstpyhd tPjp tpgj;Jf;fs; elg;gJ
Ntnwe;j ehl;ilAk; tpl ,yq;ifapy; jhd;. MfNt tPjp tpgj;Jf;fis mfw;w
Ntz;Lkhapd; thfd rhujp gapw;rpg; ghlrhiyfis ehk; %btpl Ntz;Lk;.
Mf> xUtu; jhd; ep&gpf;f tpUk;Gtij cz;iknad vLj;Jf; nfhz;L jhd;
Kd;itf;Fk; vLNfhs;fs; nghUe;jh> nghUsw;w Kbitj; jUtjw;F ,t;tifg; Nghyp
fhuzkhFk;.
2. mwpahik epahag; Nghyp my;yJ tpfw;g KbTg;Nghyp (Ignoratio Elenchi)
epakkpy;g; Nghypfspd; fPo; ,lk;ngWfpd;w gytPdkhd njhFj;jwpTg; Nghyp tif
,JthFk;. mwpahik kdg;ghq;fpdhy; epahak; $w Ntz;ba tplaj;jpw;Fg; gjpyhf
kaq;fp gpw tplak; gw;wp thjpLk; Nghnjy;yhk; mwpahik epahag; Nghyp Vw;gLk;. NkYk;
ve;j tplaj;ijg; gw;wp thjpl Ntz;LNkh mjw;F Gwk;ghdtw;iwg; gw;wp thjpLtJk;
xU $w;wpd; kWg;G epWtg;glhj epiyapypUe;J mjid Rl;bf;fhl;b mf;$w;wpd; tpjpg;ig
epWt Kay;tjhy; mwpahik epahag;Nghyp Vw;gLfpwJ. ,jid tpfw;g KbT vdTk;
$Wtu;. ehk; vLf;Fk; KbT vJntd njspthf czu;e;jpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. ,y;iyNay;
,g;Nghyp Vw;gLk;. Vida tifg;Nghypfis tpl mwpahik epahaNghyp kpf
,yFthfTk; mjpfkhfTk; epfo;tjhFk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
I. ngNuuh vd;gtd; fs;Nsh my;yJ rhuhaNkh my;yJ kJrhuk; fye;j
FbtiffisNah Fbg;gij vtUk; vr;re;ju;g;gj;jpYk; fhztpy;iy vd;gjdhy;
epr;rakhf ngNuuh Fbfhudy;y.
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ngNuuh Fbfhudy;y. vd;gij Muha;eJ tpjpg;gpid mwpahky; mtd;
Fbfhudy;y vd;w kWg;gpid epWt Kay;tjhy; mwpahik epahag;Nghyp
epfo;e;Js;sJ.
II. Gyd;fle;j fhl;rp xd;W ,Ug;gij ep&gpg;gjpy; ,Jtiu ahUNk ntw;wp
ngwtpy;iy. MfNt Gyd; fle;j fhl;rp vd;gJ xU fl;Lf;fij.
,t; ciuapy; Gyd; fle;j fhl;rp Fwpj;j kWg;ig mwpahky; mjd; tpjpg;ig
ep&g Kay;tjhy; Nghyp Vw;gl;Ls;sJ.
III. gy tUlq;fshf jpU.ngNuuhtplkpUe;J ve;jj; jfty;fSk; fpilf;ftpy;iy.
Fiwe;j gl;rk; mtiur; re;jpj;j xUtiuahtJ ehk; re;jpf;ftpy;iy.
re;Njfkpd;wp mtu; ,we;J tpl;lhu;.
gy tUlq;fshf jpU.ngNuuhtplkpUe;J ve;jj; jfty;fSk; fpilf;ftpy;iy.
mtiu re;jpj;j xUtiuahtJ ehk; re;jpf;ftpy;iy vd;w kWg;gpid mwpahky;
mtu; ,we;J tpl;lhu;. vd;w tpjpg;ig epWt Kay;tjhy; Vw;gLtJ mwpahik epakg;
NghypahFk;.
,k;%d;W ciug;gFjpfspYk; KbT njspthf ep&gpf;fg;gl;ljhf
vLj;Jf;fhl;lg;gLfpwJ. cz;ikapy; KbT Mjhuj;Jld; vLj;Jf; fhl;lg;gltpy;iy
vd;gijNa mwpahik epahag;Nghyp typAWj;Jfpd;wJ.
I. Ms; epahag; Nghyp (Argumentum ad Hominem)
mwpahik epaha Nghypapd; gpupNjhu; tifahd Ms; epahag; NghypahdJ xUtuhy;
cUthf;fgl;l cz;ikia my;yJ nfhs;ifia rupahdNjh md;Nwy; jtwhdNjh
vd epidg;gjw;Fg; gjpyhf $wpatiu gw;wp mtUila elj;ij> Fztpay;G> xOq;fPdk;
Mfpatw;iw Rl;bf;fhl;b mtUila $w;iw Vw;f kWg;gjhFk;. ,g;Nghypia ghku
kf;fspilNa> murpay;thjpfspilNa> ,yf;fpathjpfspilNa> rkathjpfspilNa
epfOk; thjq;fspYk; Nkilg;Ngr;Rf;fspYk; mtjhdpf;fyhk;. NkYk; xUtUila
Ke;jpa fhy eltbf;iffis Rl;bf;fhl;b xU Kbtpw;F Vw;Gilajd;Nwh vd thjpLk;
NghJk; ,g;Nghyp Vw;gLfpwJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
I. mur jug;G tof;fwpQu; Fw;wk; Rkj;jg;gl;ltd; Fw;wthspjhd; vd;gij epWtf;
fLikahf Kad;whu;. mur jug;G tof;fwpQu; vd;w tifapy; mtu; mt;thW
jhd; Kay;thu;. mjpy; Mr;rupag;gl xd;Wkpy;iy. vdNt mtuJ thjq;fis
cz;ikahit vd;W fUjj; Njitapy;iy.
II. xOf;fj;ijg; gw;wp Nghjfu; “X” $Wk; fUj;Jf;fis vk;khy; Vw;Wf; nfhs;s
KbahJ. Vnddpy; mtu; rpWtu; J\;gpuNahfk; Fw;wj;ijg; Gupe;J tpl;L
jiykiwthf tho;gtu;.
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III. ePl;Nr vd;gtupd; ,Ug;gpay;thjk; ngWkjpahdjy;y; Vnddpy; flTs; ,y;iy.
flTs; ,we;J tpl;lhu;. flTisf; nfhd;W tpl;Nlhk; vd mtu; $wpajd; %yk;
flTSf;F vjpuhd ghtf;fhuu;. ePl;Nrapd; ,Ug;gpay;thj rpe;jidfis fUj;jpw;
nfhs;shky; rka epiyikfis fUj;jpy; nfhz;L mtUila rpe;jid
ngWkjpahdjy;y vdf; $w Kidtjhy; Nghyp Vw;gl;Ls;sJ.
II. khf;fs; epahag; Nghyp (Argumentum ad populum)
mwpahik epahag; Nghypapd; gpupNjhu; tifr; rhu;ej; gytPdkhd njhFj;jwpg;
NghypahFk;. ,jd;gb xU nfhs;if my;yJ fUj;ij Mjhuq;fSld; ep&gpf;fhJ
nrhw;fs; %yk; rhjhuz kf;fis czu;r;rptrg;gLj;jp mtu;fsJ Kw;Nfhl;lq;fisg;
gad;gLj;jp jkJ fUj;ij my;yJ nfhs;ifia ep&gpf;f Kay;tNj khf;fs; epahag;
NghypahFk;. mjhtJ rhjuhz kf;fis kpifg;gLj;jpa nrhw;fs; %yk; jk;trg;gLj;jp
mtu;fspd; Mjuitf; nfhz;L xU epahaj;ij Kd;itj;jyhFk;.
I. ez;gNu! ftpQu; m\;u/g; rp`hg;jPdhy; vOjg;gl;l “xU Flk; jz;zPu;” vDk;
ehtiyj; jaT nra;J Kbe;jtiu tpiutpy; thrpAq;fs;. Vw;fdNt rpy Mapuk;
gpujpfs; tpw;W Kbe;Jtpl;ld. ,d;W mNefkhdf xt;nthUtUk; ,ijg;
gw;wpj;jhd; NgRfpd;wdu;.
II. lhu;tpdpd; gupzhkf; nfhs;ifia Vw;ff; $lhJ fhuzk; mJ ek; Kd;Ndhu;fis
Fuq;fpd; topte;jtu;fs; vd;W $WfpwJ.
,t;tpU ciufSk; jk;fUj;ij Mjuhq;fSld; vLj;Jf; fhl;lhky;
kf;fis jk;trg;gLj;jp jk;ik type;J epahag;gLj;Jtjhy; Nghyp epfo;fpd;wJ.
III. mQ;Qhdg; Nghyp (Argumentum ad ignorantiam)
mwpahik epahag; Nghypapd; gpupnjhU tbtkhFk;. vt;tifapYk; ep&gpf;fg;glhj
$w;Wf;fis Nfl;gtu; jdJ mwpahik fhuzkhf ep&gpf;fg;gl;lit vd
ek;gpf;nfhz;L mtw;iw Vw;fr;nra;jNy mQ;Qhd epahag;NghypahFk;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
flw; fd;dpfs; ,y;iy vd ep&gpg;gJ fbdk;. Mifahy; flw;fd;dpfs; ,Uf;fpd;wd
vd;W $Wk;NghJ ,g;Nghyp Vw;gLfpd;wJ. Vnddpy; ,J cz;ikapy; ep&gpf;fg;gl;l
$w;wd;W.
IV. nfsut epahag;Nghyp my;yJ gf;jp epahag;Nghyp ((Argumentum ad Vereccundiam)
,g;NghypAk; mwpahik epahag;Nghyp tifiar; rhu;e;jjhFk;. ghuk;gupak;> kuG
Mfpatw;wpd; Jiznfhz;L xUthjj;ij nka;apg;gpg;gjhy; ,g;Nghyp Vw;gLfpwJ. ,jd;
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%yk; kjpg;gpw;Fupa Mjhuk; xd;iw fhl;b $w;iw Vw;fr; nra;tjhFk;. mjhtJ
kjpg;gpw;Fupa ngupatu; xUtu; mf;fUj;ij Mjhupf;fpd;whu; my;yJ vjpu;f;fpd;whu;
vd;gjd; %yk; thjj;ij nka;g;gpf;f Kay;tJ NghypahFk;. Xu; Mjhuj;jpd; ghy;
nfhz;Ls;s mjpfkhd kjpg;G my;yJ gf;jp fhuzkhf jug;gl;l Xu; vLg;gpw;F
MjuthfTk; vjpuhfTk; jug;gl;l thjj;jpid NrhjpahJ tpLk; kdg;ghd;ikapdhy;
Nghyp Vw;gLfpwJ. ,e;j thjj;ij NkNyhu; $w;W epahak; (ipse dixit) vd;Wk; $Wtu;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
I. gpNshl;Nlh> igjf;fu]; Nghd;w Gfo; ngw;w nka;apayhsu;fs; kWgpwg;gpid
ek;gpAs;sdu;. MfNt kWgpwg;gpYs;s cz;ikj; jd;ikapy; IaNkw;gl;l xU
epahakkpy;iy.
II. ePu; ,e;jf; nfhs;ifia> fUj;ij Vw;f Ntz;Lk;. my;yJ ,e;j khw;wj;jpid
Mjupf;f Ntz;Lk;. Vnddpy; Nguhrpupau; kz;ilad; mjid Mjupf;fpd;whu;.
,e;j ,U ciug;gFjpfspYk; Fwpg;gpl;l egu;fis Mjhuj;jpd;ghy; nfhz;L
epahaj;ij Vw;fr; nra;tjdhy; Nghyp Vw;gl;Ls;sJ.
3. mjpfhug; Nghyp (Argumentum ad Authority )
Fwpj;j Jiw rhu;e;j mwpT> mDgtk; vJTkw;w xUtu; mj;Jiw gw;wp NgRk; NghJ
,g;Nghyp Vw;gLfpd;wJ. NkYk; Fwpj;j Jiwapy; tpN\lj;JtKs;stu;fspd;
fUj;Jf;fis mj;Jiw rhuhj xUtu; kWjypj;Jg; NgRk; NghJk; ,g;Nghyp Vw;gl
tha;g;Gz;L. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
I. cyf moF uhzp jdJ tapw;W Nehit ePf;Ftjw;F Digusi mps kUe;J
vLf;fpd;whs;. cyf moF uhzpf;F gytifahd tapw;W NehTfs; ,Uf;Fk;
vd;gJ re;Njfj;jpe;F ,lkw;w tplak;. vdNt Digusi mps jhd; tapw;W Nehtpw;F
rpwe;j kUe;J.
cyf moF uhzpia Nkw;nfhs;fhl;b tapw;W Nehtpw;F Digusi mps
kUe;ij rpghu;R nra;J NgRk; NghJ mjpfhug; Nghyp Vw;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ
cyf mofp rUkj;ij Ngh\pf;fTk; kpUJthfTk; tdg;ghfTk; itj;jpUg;gJ
Fwpj;j mDgtKilatNu jtpu kUj;Jt Jiwrhu; epGzj;Jtk; ngw;wtuy;y.
II. Nguhrpupau; rf;jP\; gy tUlq;fshf Muha;r;rp nra;J njhy;nghUspay; Jiwf;F
Gjpa Nfhl;ghLfs; gytw;iw toq;fpa Gfo; ngw;w Gyikahsu;. MfNt
jiytypf;fhf kpfr; rpwe;jJ vd mtuhy; mwpKfg;gLj;jpAs;s Vapo Rup
kUe;jpidg; gad;gLj;j ,UKiw Nahrpf;f Ntz;bajpy;iy.
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Nguhrpupau; rf;jP\; njhy;nghUs;j; Jiwapy; gy Muha;r;rp nra;J Gfo; ngw;w
GyikahsNu jtpu jiytypf;fhd kUe;J gw;wpa epGzj;Jtk; ngw;wtuy;y.
MfNt Nguhrpupaiu jiytypf;fhd kUe;jpw;F Nkw;nfhs; fhl;bg;NgRk; NghJ
mjpfhug; Nghyp epfo;fpwJ.
4. fhfjhypag; Nghyp (Fallacy of post hocergo propeter hoc )
fhuz fhupag; Nghyp tifiar; rhu;e;j gytPdkhd njhFj;jwpg; Nghyp tbtq;fspy;
xd;whf ,jidf; nfhs;tu;. “,jdhy; ,J” vd thjpLk; Nghyp tbtk; vd;Wk;
Fwpg;gpLtu;. vjpu;ghuhj tpjkhf my;yJ jw;nrayhf ele;j Kd; epfo;r;rp xd;iw
mLj;J ele;j gpd; epfo;r;rp xd;wpw;F fhuzk; vdf; $Wtjhy; Vw;gLk; Nghyp
fhfjhypag; NghypahFk;. mjhtJ jtwhd fhuzj;ij my;yJ fhuzkpy;yhj
fhuzj;ij $Wtjdhy; ,g;Nghyp Vw;gLfpwJ. mtrug;gl;L epjhdj;ij ,oe;J
tpLtjhy; ngUk;ghYk; vkf;Fj; Njhd;Wk; Kw;fUj;ijNa tpsf;fkhff; nfhs;fpNwhk;.
,jdhNyNa ,g;Nghyp Vw;gLfpd;wJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
I. ghu;itahsu;fs; kQ;rs; njhg;gp mzpe;J eldk; Mbajdhy;jhd; fle;j ,U
khjq;fshf ele;j Nghl;bfspy; ,yq;if fpupf;nfw; mzp Njhy;tp fz;Ls;sJ.
mLj;J tUk; fhyj;jpyhtJ ,yq;if fpupf;nfw; mzpg;Nghl;bfspy;
Njhy;tpailtijj; jtpu;f;f Ntz;Lkhapd; ghu;itahsu;fs; kQ;rs; njhg;gp
mzpe;J eldkhLtij iftpl Ntz;Lk;.
II. kioAld; vjpu;ghuhj tpjkhff; Nfl;l ,bNahir kio nga;af; fhuzkhFk;.
,q;F Kbtpw;Fk; Nkw;NfhSf;Fk; mjhtJ Fwpj;j epfo;r;rpf;Fk;
tpistpw;Fk; vJtpjj; njhlu;Gk; fhzg;glhj NghJk; njhlu;gpUg;gjhf thjpLk;
NghJ ,g;Nghyp Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
5. jbab epahag; Nghyp (Argumentum ad baculum / Appeal to force)
,J mjpfhug; Nghyp tbtq;fspy; xd;W. xUtu; jdJ> jhd; rhu;e;j fl;rpapd;> FOtpd;>
,dj;jpd; nfhs;ifia my;yJ fUj;ij Mjhuj;Jld; nka;gpf;f Kbahj
re;ju;g;gj;jpy; jdj gyj;ijAk;> rf;jpiaAk; gad;gLj;jp NeubahfNth my;yJ
kiwKfkhNth mt;mgpg;gpuhaj;ij Vw;fr; nra;jNy jbab epahakhFk;. ,J
xUtdpd; rf;jpiaAk;> gyj;ijAk;> nry;thf;ifAk; vLj;Jf; fhl;LNkad;wp thjj;jpd;
nrk;ikiaf; fhl;lhJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
I. ruj; ,d;W khiy cdJ irf;fpis vdf;Fj; jUtha; vd;W njupAk;. ,d;W eP
ghlrhiyf;F nry;ytpy;iy vd;gij cd; jha; mwptij eP tpUk;g khl;lha;.
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II. ckJ epjp epiyikiaf; ftdj;jpy; nfhz;lhy; ck;ik vkJ mikg;gpy; Nru;j;J
nfhs;SkhW MNyhriz $wj; Njhd;WfpwJ. cile;J nehUq;fpg; Nghd
ad;dy;> fjTfs;> tPl;Lj; jsghlq;fs; vd;gtw;Wld; nehUq;fpg; Nghd thfdk;
Kjypatw;wpd; e\;lj;ijAk; ftdj;jpy; nfhz;L ghu;j;jhy; vkJ mikg;gpy; ePu;
mq;fj;jtuhf Nruhky; ,Uf;f KbahJ vd;gij ck;khy; ed;F czu KbAk;.
,q;F KbT Mjhuj;Jld; ep&gpf;f Kbahky; ,t;thwhd MNyhriz kw;Wk;
mr;RWj;jy; %yk; jdJ fUj;ij Vw;fr; nra;jy; jbabthjg; NghypahFk;.
6. mDjhg topg;Nghyp my;yJ gupT epahag;Nghyp (Argumentum ad misericordiam)
,J nghUe;jh KbTg;Nghyp tifiar; rhu;e;j njhFj;jwp jw;ju;f;fg; NghypahFk;.
,jid ,uf;fg; Nghyp vdTk; miog;gu;. xU thjj;jpy; ntw;wp ngWtjw;fhf jtwhd
topapy; mDjhgj;ij ngw Kay;tNj mDjhg topg; NghypahFk;. mjhtJ thjp
mDjhgj;jpw;Fupa my;yJ ,uf;fj;jpw;Fupa Mjhuk; xd;iwf; fhl;b Kbnthd;wpw;Fr;
nry;fpd;w epiyapy; ,g;Nghyp Vw;gLk;. ,g;NghypahdJ xUtu; ,d;ndhUtiu
vg;gbahtJ fhg;gw;w Ntz;Lk; vd epidf;Fk; NghJ vOfpd;wJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf @
I. nfsut rhghehafu; mtu;fNs! gpujk ePjpauru; fyhepjp rpuhzp gz;lhuehaf;f
kPjhd Fw;wg; gj;jpupf;ifia kPsg; ngw Ntz;Lk; . Vnddpy; mtu; ,yq;ifapd;
Kjw; ngz; gpujkepjpauru; mjpYk; $l mtu; rpwe;j jhAkhthu;. mj;Jld;
mtUf;F Foe;ijfSk; cz;L. NkYk; Z Gs;sp njhlu;ghf khzt r%fj;jpw;F
rpwe;j jPu;g;igf; nfhLj;jtuhthu;.
,e;j ciuapy; Fw;wk; nra;atpy;iy vd;gJ Mjhuj;Jld;
vLj;Jf;fhl;lg;glhky; gpujk ePjpauru; kPJ ,uf;f czu;it Vw;gLj;Jtjd; %yk;
mtu; kPjhd Fw;wg;gj;jpupifia kPsg;ngw Kay;tjdhy; ,g;Nghyp epfo;fpd;wJ.
II. mjpgu; mtu;fNs! gl;bdp fplf;Fk; ngw;NwhUf;Fk;> tyJ Fiwe;j kidtpf;Fk;
VO gps;isfSf;Fk; cztspf;f Ntz;bapUg;gjdhy; rk;gs cau;tpw;F ehd;
jFjpahdtd;.
,t;Tiuapy; rk;gs cau;tpw;fhd epahakhd fhuzq;fis Kd;itf;fhky;
jd; FLk;g epiyiaf; $wp ,uf;f czu;it Vw;gLj;jp cau;tpw;F Kay;tjhy;
Nghyp epfo;fpwJ.
7. mrpj;jg; Nghyp (Fallacy of non sequitur)
,jid njhlu;gpd;ik epahak; vdTk; miog;gu;. mjhtJ KbT vL$w;Wf;fspypUe;J
ju;f;fKiwapy; ngwg;glhjjd; tpisthf epfo;tNj mrpj;jg;NghypahFk;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
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I. rpWtu; ghJfhg;Gj; njhlu;ghf jdp mikr;Rk; ,Jtiu ,y;yhj rl;ljpl;lq;fSk;
,d;W fhzg;gbDk; $l rpWtu; ghypay; J\;gpuNahfk; ehSf;F ehs; mjpfupj;j
tz;zk; cs;sJ. MfNt rpWtu;fis ghypay; J\;gpuNahfj;jpypUe;J
ghJfhg;gjw;Fr; nra;a Ntz;baJ vd;dntdpy; mJ njhlu;ghf cs;s jdp
mikr;irAk; rl;ljpl;lq;fisAk; $Lkhdtiu mfw;wp tpLtNjahFk;.
rpWtu;fis ghJfhg;gjw;F cupa fhuzq;fisf; fz;L rpWtu; ghypay;
J\;gpuNahfj;jpypUe;J rpWtu;fisg; ghJfhg;gjw;Fg; gjpyhf rpWtu; ghJfhg;Gf;
Fwpj;j jdp mikr;irAk; mjd; rl;ljpl;lq;fisAk; mfw;wp tpLtJ vd;gJ
ju;f;f uPjpahd KbT my;y. Mf> ,t; ciuapy; ju;f;f uPjpahf KbT
ngwg;glhjjhy; mrpj;jg; Nghyp epfo;e;Js;sJ.
II. f.ngh.j. rhjhuz juj;Nju;T ehbfs; mwpTs;stu;fs;. MfNt Nju;T ehbahd
ruj; mwpTs;stdhthd;.
,t; ciug;gFjpia gpupg;Gg; Nghypahf epidf;f
Ntz;bajpy;iy. ,J mrpj;jg;NghypNa. Vnddpy; KbTiu vL$w;Wf;F
khw;whfNtAs;sJ. KbTiuapy; ngau; Fwpg;gpl;l ‘ruj;’ vt;tif guPl;irf;Fupa
Nju;T ehb? vd;gJ milahsg;gLj;jg;glhjjhy; mrpj;jg; Nghyp epfo;fpd;wJ.
8. jlj;jw; Nghyp (Fallacy of Accident)
nghJtthd tpjp my;yJ tplaq;fis mtjhdkpd;wp vy;yhr; re;ju;g;gq;fspYk;
gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ ,t;thwhd Nghyp epfo;tijf; fhzyhk;. xU nghJthd tpjpia
mjw;F xg;ghd nghUj;jkhd rk;gtq;fSf;F gad;gLj;jhJ fUj;jpd;wp
nghUj;jkpy;yhj re;ju;g;gj;jpYk; gpuNahfpf;Fk; NghJ ,j;jifa Nghyp epfOk;.
cjhuzkhf@ ahuhtJ xUtu; gpupnjhUtiu fj;jpahy; ntl;bdhy; mtu;
Fw;wthspahff; fUjg;gLthu;. rj;jpu rpfpr;irapd;NghJ itj;jpau; Nehahspapd;
mDkjpAld; mtupd; tapw;iw ntl;b rj;jpurpfpr;ir nra;jhYk; mtu;
Fw;wthspahthu;. vdf;nfhs;Sk;NghJ ,g;Nghyp Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
,jpy; ,uz;L tbtq;fs; cs;sd:
I. Neu; jlj;jw; Nghyp
II. kiw jlj;jw; Nghyp
i. Neu; jlj;jw; Nghyp (Direct fallacy of accident)
rhjhuz epiyikfspy; nghJthf cs;s ,ay;ig rpwg;ghd re;ju;g;gq;fspy;
nghUe;Jk; vd; nfhs;tjhy; ,g;Nghyp epfOk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
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[dehaf murpy; Ngr;Rr; Rje;jpuk; murpay; ahg;gpd; %yk; ghJfhf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
MfNt ,df;fytuj;jpw;F JhgkpLk; Ngr;Rf;fis ahNuDk; Ngrpdhy; mtiu
ifJ nra;tJ [dehaf Rje;jpuj;ij kPWtjhFk; vdg;NgRtJ Neu; jlj;jw;
NghypahFk;.
ii. kWjiy jlj;jw;Nghyp (Counter fallacy of accident)
rpwg;ghd rpy rkaq;fspy; kl;Lk; xU tplaj;jpw;Fs;s gz;gpid nghJthf
vy;yhr; re;ju;g;gq;fspYk; nghUe;Jfpd;w gz;ghf fUJtjhy; my;yJ
fhl;Ltjhy; epfOk; NghypahFk;;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
cly; eykpd;wp ,Uf;Fk; nghOJ Nehahsp gLf;ifapy;
Xa;ntLg;gJ ey;yJ. vdNt vg;nghOk; gLf;ifapy; Xa;ntLj;Jf; nfhz;bUg;gJ
cly; eyj;jpw;F ey;yJ vd;W tpthjpf;Fk; NghJ kWjiy jlj;jw; Nghyp
epfo;fpd;wJ.
9. gy;tphdg; Nghyp (Fallacy of Complex Question)
ePjp kd;wj;jpy; FWf;F tprhuizapd; NghJ rl;lj;juzpfs; ,g;Nghypia mjpfk;
gad;gLj;Jtu;. ,k;Kiwapy; KbTiu Vw;fdNt xg;Gf; nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ
jhd; epiy epWj;j tpUk;Gk; cz;ikia my;yJ tpilia mbg;gilahf; nfhz;L
Nfl;fg;gLk; Nfs;tpfSf;F ve;jtifapy; tpilaspg;gpDk; mJ Fw;wj;ij
xg;Gf;nfhs;sf; $bajhf mikAk; re;ju;g;gq;fspy; ,g;Nghyp epfo;fpd;wJ.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
I. cdJ kidtpf;F mbg;gij ,g;NghJ tpl;L tpl;lhah?
II. eP Fbg;gij epWj;jp tpl;lhah?
,t;tpU Nfs;tpfSf;Fk; ‘Mk;’ vd;W gjpy; $wpdhy; mtd; Vw;fdNt kidtpf;F
mbg;gtdhfTk;> Fbfhudhf ,Ue;jtd; vd;gJk; xg;Gf; nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ. ‘,y;iy’
vd;why; mtd; ,d;Dk; kidtpf;F mbg;gtdhfTk;> Fbfhudhf ,Ug;gJk;
xg;Gf;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. ,e;epiy fhuzkhfNt Nghyp epfo;fpd;wJ.
10. ,U nghUs;g;Nghypfs; (Fallacy of Ambiguity)
nkhopg; Nghypfshd ,it ,yf;fzj; njsptpd;ikapdhy; epfOk; nrhw;gjq;fis
jtwhfg; Gupe;J nfhs;tjhYk; xU nrhw;gjk; ,uz;L nghUspy; tUk;NghJk; epfOk;
Nghyp tbtq;fshFk;. ,jw;Fs; gpd;tUk; tbtq;fs; cs;slq;Fk;@
I. ftu; nghUl;ghl;Lg; Nghyp
II. ,ul;Lw nkhopjw; Nghyp
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III. cr;rupg;Gg; Nghyp
IV. rKjhag; Nghyp
V. gpupg;Gg; Nghyp
I. ftu; nghUl;ghl;Lg; Nghyp (Falacy of Aequivocation)
epakg;Nghyp tbtq;fspy; xd;whfTk; ,jidf; nfhs;tu;. xU thj;jpy;
gad;gLj;jg;gLk; xU nrhy; my;yJ ,U nrhw;fs; xd;wpy; NeubahfNth my;yJ
kiwKfkhfNth ,uz;L my;yJ ,uz;bw;F Nkw;gl;l mu;j;jq;fspy;
gad;gLj;jg;gLkhapd; me;epiyapy; ftu; nghUl;ghl;Lg; Nghyp epfOk;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
xU tpw;gidahsd; xU kdpjdhthd;. MfNt ey;ynjhU tpw;gidahsd; ey;ynjhU
kdpjdhthd; vDk;NghJ ,g;Nghyp epfo;fpwJ.
II. ,ul;Lw nkhopjw; Nghyp (Fallacy of Amphibolia)
thjj;jpd; ,yf;fz mikg;gpd; Fiwghl;lhy; ,yf;fz ,ul;LW cz;lhfp <ubapay;Gf;F
,lk; jUfpwJ. trd mikg;gpd; %yk; vOk; <ubapay;gpdhNyNa ,t;tifg;Nghyp
cz;lhfpwJ. cz;ikapy; Xu; vLg;gpw;Fj; jtwhf nghUs; nfhs;sNy ,ul;Lw nkhopjw;
NghypahFk;. Mifahs; ftu;nghUl;ghl;Lg; NghypfSf;Fk; ,ul;LW nkhopjw;
NghypfSf;Fk; mbg;gilapy; NtWghL vJTk; ,y;iynadyhk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
,yq;if Nkhl;lhu; jpizf;fsj;jpw;Fr; nrd;why; mq;F “jufu;fs; ftdk;” vd;gij
mwptpg;Gg; gyifapy; fhzyhk;. ,t;twptpg;G mq;F tUk; thbf;ifahsUf;fh? my;yJ
mq;F elkhbj; jpupAk; jufu;fSf;fh? ,t;twptpg;G ,UnghUs; nfhz;l thf;fpakhf
miktjhy; Nghyp Vw;gLfpwJ. ,q;F nrhw;gjj;jpw;Fr; rkkhd vz;zf;fU njspTk;
epu;zaKk; ,d;ikNa Nghypf;F fhuzkhFk;. ,J xU tO vdyhk;.
III. cr;rupg;Gg; Nghyp my;yJ mOj;jw; Nghyp (The Fallacia Accontus or Prosodiac)
Ngr;R tof;fpy; ,t;tifg; Nghypfs; Vw;gLtjhf mup];Nuhl;by; Rl;bf; fhl;Lfpd;whu;.
mjhtJ thu;j;ijfis cr;rupf;fpd;w tpjj;jhYk; Nghyp Vw;glyhk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf;
B.Nkhfd; jUk; ciuia Nehf;fyhk;@ ‘eP cd; may; tPl;lUf;F vjpuhf ngha;r;rhl;rpak;
nrhy;yhNj’ ,jpy; may; tPl;lhu; vd;gij mOj;jp cr;rupj;jhy; may; tPl;lhiuj; jtpu
kw;wtu;fSf;F vjpuhf ngha;r;rhl;rpak; $wyhk; vd;W nghUs;gLk;. ‘eP’ vd;gij mOj;jp
cr;rupj;jhy; eP nrhy;yf; $lhJ kw;wtu;fs; nrhy;yyhk; vd;W nghUs;gLk;. ‘vjpuhf’
vd;gij tw;GWj;jpdhy; “vjpuhfr; nrhy;yf; $lhJ” Mdhy; rhjfkhfr; nrhy;yyhk;
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vd;W nghUs;gLk;. NkYk; xU $w;Wf;F cupj;jhd xypia ePf;fp mjidf; $Wk;NghJ
mOj;jw; Nghyp epfo;tjhf B.Nkhfd; $Wfpd;whu;.
IV. rKjhag; Nghyp (Fallacy of Composition)
ahNjDk; jdpaDf;Fupa my;yJ gFjpf;Fupa gz;Gfis jdpad; rhu;e;j tFg;G my;yJ
rKjha KOikf;Fupa gz;ghf nfhs;Sk; NghJ Vw;gLtNj rKjhag; NghypahFk;.
mjhtJ jdp xUtUf;Fupa my;yJ epfo;r;rp my;yJ nghUSf;Fupa gz;ig mjd; KO
tFg;gpd; kPJ Rkj;Jk; NghJk; mt;tFg;gpw;Fupa gz;ghf fUJk; NghJk; mjd;
mikg;gpy; cs;s jtwpdhy; Vw;gLk;. ,g;Nghypia mikg;Gg; Nghyp vdTk; miog;gu;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
I. xU fhu; XLtjw;F Njitahd vupnghUisg; ghu;f;fpYk; xU nyhwp XLtjw;Fj;
Njitahd vupnghUs; msT mjpfkhFk;. MfNt ,yq;ifapy; nyhwpia tpl
kpff;Fiwthd vupnghUNs fhUf;fhf vupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. vd;W $Wk;NghJ
,g;Nghyp vOfpd;wJ.
II. mT];jpNuypa fpupf;nfw; njhlupd; nghJ ,yq;if fpupf;nfw;j; jiytUk;
cgjiytUk; rpwg;ghf tpisahbdu;. MfNt mT];jpNuypaj; njhlupd; NghJ
,yq;if mzpNa rpwg;ghf tpisahbaJ vd mDkhdpg;gJ rKjhag;
NghypahFk;.
V. gpupg;Gg; Nghyp (Fallacy of Division)
xU r%fk; my;yJ xU tFg;G KOikf;Fk; nghJthd gz;gpid mjw;Fs; cs;s jdp
xU egUf;Fk; my;yJ jdpad; xt;nthd;wpw;Fk; nghUe;Jk; vd thjpLk; NghJ gpupg;Gg;
Nghyp Vw;gLfpd;wJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf@
I. ,e;j thfdk; kpfTk; ghukhdJ. MfNt ,e;j thfdj;jpd; xt;nthU ghfKk;
kpfTk; ghukhdjhFk;. ,q;F ,e;j thfdk; ghukhdJ vd;w KOikf;Fupa
gz;gpid mjd; xt;nthU ghfKk; kpfg;ghukhdJ vd jdp myfpw;Fupajhf
mDkhdpj;jpUg;gjhy; gpupg;Gg; Nghyp epfo;fpd;wJ.
II. ePu; xUtdpd; jhfj;ij jPu;f;Fk;. ePu; i`l;u[d; kw;Wk; xl;rprdpd; $l;lkhFk;.
vdNt i`l;u[Dk; xl;rprDk; xUtdpd; jhfj;ijj; jPu;f;Fk;.
,e;j ciuapd; gb> ePu; vd;gJ i`l;u[d;> xl;rprd; vDk; ,U
%yfq;fspd; $l;lhFk;. ePu; jhfj;ij jPu;f;Fk; gz;G nfhz;lJ. Mdhy; ePupd;
%yfq;fshd i`l;u[Dk; xl;rprDk; jdpj;jdpahf jhfj;ijj; jPu;f;Fk; vd
Kbtpw;F tUk; NghJ gpupg;Gg; Nghyp epfo;fpwJ.
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,e;jpa msitapaypy; mDkhdf; Nfhl;ghL
xU nghUis fz;L> fhzg;glhj mjDld; njhlh;Gila nghUis mwpjNy mDkhdk;.
jpd;dhfh; mDkhdj;jpid ,uz;lhfg; ghFghL nra;Js;shu;. mit>
1. Rthu;j;jDkhdk; (jd; nghUl;L mDkhdk;) - VJ> tpahg;jp> gf;~k;> rhj;ak;
VJ - kiyapy; Gif ,Ug;gjhy;
tpahg;jp - vq;F gif cz;Nlh mq;F jP cz;L
gf;~k;- kiyapy; jP cz;L
rhj;ak;- jP cz;L
2. guhu;j;jDkhdk; (gpwh; nghUl;L mDkhdk; ) - gf;;fk;> VJ> jpl;lhe;jk;> cgeak;> epfkd;
gf;fk; (gpujpf;iQ) - kiyapy; jP cs;sJ.
VJ – Vnddpy; mq;F Gif fhzg;gLfpwJ.
jpl;lhe;jk;- Gif vjpypUe;J te;jhYk; mq;F jP cs;sJ.
cgeak; - kiyapy; GifAld; jPAk; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
epfkdk; - MfNt kiyapy; jP cs;sJ
“vq;nfy;yhk; Gif ,Uf;fpwNjh mq;nfy;yhk; jP ,Uf;Fk; mg;gbg;gl;l xU Gif kiy Nky;
cs;sJ”. – stcherbatsky
[e;JWg;G epahaj;njhil
1. gf;fk;: (proposition, thesis) - kiyapy; jP cs;sJ
2. VJ (Reason) - Vnddpy; mq;F GifapUg;gjdhy;
3. jpl;lhe;jk; (Example) – Gif vjpypUe;J te;jhYk; mq;F jP cs;sJ.
4. cgeak; (application ) - ;kiyapy; GifAld; jPAKz;L
5. epfkdk; (conclusion) – MfNt kiyapy; jP cz;L
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,e;jpa msitapaiyAk; mup];Nuhl;bypd; msitapaiyAk; xg;G Nehf;fpd;>
mup];Nuhl;bypa msitapay; ,U tbtq;fisg; ngw;Ws;sJ. mit ca;j;jwpTk; njhFj;jwpTk; MFk;. ,e;jpa msitapaypy; ,jpy; njspthd NtWghl;bidf; fhzKbahJ.
,e;jpa msiutapay; mjd; gd;gpy; epak msitapay; Kiwia mjpfk; jOtpAs;sJ. mup];Nuhl;bypd; msitapay; gd;kjpg;G jUf;fj;ij nfhz;lJ.
mup];Nuhl;bypd; msitapaiyg;Nghy ,e;jpa msitapay; ,Wf;fkhd tbtikg;igf; nfhz;ljy;y.
mup];Nuhl;bypd; msitapaiy tpl fPioj;Nja msitapay; mjpfsT mwpthuhl;r;rp mbg;gilia nfhz;ljhFk;.
,e;jpa msitapay; ,U mDkhdq;fisg; gw;wpa tpsf;fkhFk; mitahtd RthHj;j mDkhdk; kw;Wk; guHj;jDkhdkhFk;. ,e;j mDkhdq;fspd; VJtpypUe;J (rhd;W) rhj;jpaj;ij (KbT) mDkhdpf;fpd;Nwhk;. rhj;jpaj;jpypUe;J VJit mDkhdpg;gjpy;iy. mjdhy; KbT vg;NghJk; cld;ghlhd tifapy; ngwg;gLk;. Mdhy; mup];Nuhl;bypd; epahaj; njhilapy; vL$w;W xd;W Fiwahapd; KbTk; FiwahFk;> vL$w;W xd;W kiwapad; KbTk; kiwahFk; vDk; fpis kw;Wk; gpujhd tpjp mwpaj;jf;fjhFk;.
,e;jpa msitapaypy; thjj;jpd; KbT typjhdjAk; vspikahdjhAk; ,Uf;Fk; NghJ mup];Nuhl;bypd; jUf;fj;jpy; thjk; xd;wpd; KbT typjhjhdjhf kl;LNk ,Uf;Fk;. Vnddpy; mup];Nlhl;bypd; Kf;$w;W epahaKiw thjj;jpd; mikg;GfisAk; mtw;wpd; nghUj;jj;ijANk ftdj;jpw; nfhz;ljhFk;.
crhj;Jizfs;:
1. [kh`pu; gp. vk;.> (2013) etPd msitapay;> ejh ntspaPL> fz;b.
2. [kh`pu; gp. vk;.> (2016) msitapaYk; msitapay; Nfhl;ghLfSk;> ejh ntspaPL>
kUjKid.
3. N[k;]; nty;ld; kw;Wk; Nkhdfd;> V.Na.> (1967)> ,ilepiy msitapay;> ,yq;if
mur fUk nkhopj; jpizf;fsk;> nfhOk;G.