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Ch. 28: Islamic
Empires of the Early
Modern Era
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From 1300 to 1700, three “gunpowder empires” dominated parts of Europe, Africa, & Asia
The Ottoman Empire
The Safavid Empire The Mughal
Empire
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These empires were unique, but shared some similarities:
All 3 empires were able to conquer neighboring people because they formed strong
armies using cannons & artillery
All 3 empires were Islamic & ruled by Muslim leaders with well-organized gov’ts
made up of loyal bureaucrats
All 3 empires blended their culture with
neighboring societies to create a high point of
Islamic culture
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The Ottoman Empire
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The Ottomans: Empire Builders
• Mongol invasions & fall of Abbasid Caliphate allowed Ottomans to build power base in Anatolia (Turkey)
• Osman—early leader, dominated other Turkic groups
• 1350s--Expansion into Europe!• Mehmed II –Conquered
Constantinople in 1453, w/ siege warfare, cannons– Then further into Europe—Greece,
Albania, Black & Caspian Seas– Invaded Italy & attempted to
capture Pope, but failed
Mehmed the Conqueror
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Hagia Sophia after Ottoman Conquest
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Ottoman Empire: A Military State?
• Ghazi--Muslim religious warriors; “sword of God”• Military leaders played prominent role in Ottoman
gov’t.• “Warrior aristocracy” competed w/ religious leaders
for control of bureaucracy• Janissaries--conscripted boys (Christians), military
slaves– received special training, learned Turkish language, &
converted to Islam– Janissaries pledged loyalty to sultan (became his
private army)—led to decline in role of aristocrats• A “Gunpowder Empire”—soldiers were outfitted
with primitive gunpowder weapons & cannons
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Ottoman Sultans & their Court
• “Absolute” monarchs?? • Sultans dealt with many factions
– Ex.: Janissaries vs. religious scholars• Sultans were military leaders
& ran an org. bureaucracy• Suleyman the Magnificent
– Height of imperialism (conquered Baghdad & Belgrade)
– Put pressure on Habsburgs and European vessels in Mediterranean
• However, sultans grew distant/secluded; focused on large harems more than political and economic issues
Suleyman the Magnificent
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Battle of Lepanto
(vs. Austrian Hapsburgs, 1571)• (
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Flowering of Ottoman Culture • Constantinople—bad scene
immediately after 1453!• Mehmed began restoration;
converted Hagia Sophia to mosque (Aya Sofya); built new mosques, palaces, hospitals, gardens, etc.
• Adapted Byz ideas—aqueducts, concrete domes, markets, walls
• Suleymaniye mosque is considered a hallmark of Ottoman architecture
• Topkapi Palace housed gov’t offices, residence for sultan and his harem, pleasure pavilion, etc.
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Suleiman Mosque
Inside the Topkapi Palace (Harem’s
den?)
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• Cosmopolitan markets• Coffeehouses—place for men to
gather, smoke, talk politics; key for social & cultural life in Constantinople, poets, scholars
• Commerce regulated by Otto gov’t, inspectors, guilds controlled trade/quality/training
• Linguistic heritage—Arabic used for law & religion, Turkish preferred for arts & bureaucracy
• Artistic legacy—poetry, arabesque mosaics, ceramics, carpet, architecture
Flowering of Ottoman Culture
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Ottoman Decline• Ottoman Empire lasted 600 years; long-lived• REASONS for DECLINE:
– Limits of expansion by late 17th C—no new conquests, started to lose landslost tax revenue
– Corruption among gov’t. officials; local officials kept revenues & squeezed peasants for more rebellions!
– Sultans became disconnected (focus on pleasure over governing)
– viziers & Janissaries gained more power (were less loyal)– CULTURAL CONSERVATISM—ignorance of European
advancements & resistance to printing press– Military technology fell by wayside (Ottomans continued to
use large cannons when Europeans adapted light artillery)• The Empire was officially dismantled after World War I
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The Safavid Empire
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The Safavid Empire
The Safavids were Turks living in Persia who built a powerful gunpowder army
& created an empire in modern-day Iran
Unlike the Ottomans who were Sunni Muslims, the Safavids believed in Shi’a
Islam & strictly converted the people they conquered
Safavid rulers were called
shahs, using the Persian title for
king
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the Safavid Empire: Shiite v. Sunni• Rose from Turkic nomads
(post-Mongols & Tamerlane)• “Frontier warriors”—Shi’ites• Differences over views on
caliph grew into doctrinal, ritual & legal differences conflict!
• Safi al-Din—a Sufi mystic; led campaign to purify & reform Islam) among Turks in early 1300s
• Isma’il—was proclaimed shah (emperor) by 1501; conquered most of Persia & waged war w/ Ottomans
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the Safavid Empire: Shiite Rule
• Shah Isma’il proclaimed Twelver Shiism the offical religion of his realm
• Twelver Shi’ites believe there were 12 rightful imams after Muhammad (12th was driven into hiding)
• Believed he will return to lead them & spread the “true” religion
• Qizilbash-followers who wore “red hats” w/ 12 pleats to symbolize the 12 imams
• Battle of Chaldiran, 1514• battle w/Ottomans (Sunnis); driven by religious fervor• Safavids declined to use artillery, dismissing it as
“unmanly” and unreliable (they also believed the Shah could make them invincible)
• Safavid loss in the battle hindered growth of Shiite sect (Shiite rule became confined to Persia)
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• Shah Abbas I– Encouraged trade (regionally &
even w/ Europeans)– Moved capital to Isfahan
(cultural center)– Promoted culture & the arts– Building projects: great
mosques, universities, gardens, bath houses
– Arts: miniatures, mosaics, carpets
• Society & Gender roles– Patriarchy (based on Sharia law)– Women had legal disadvantages– Seclusion & veiling, imposed on
all, but especially elites
the Safavid Empire: Shi’ite Rule
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Safavid silk carpet
Persian Miniature
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Shah MosqueIsfahan, 1611-1666
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Decline & fall of Safavids– Shah Abbas I paranoid: blinded or killed
suitable successors– Practice of secluding princesweak leaders– Foreign threats--nomads, Ottomans, Mughals– March-Oct. 1722: Afghani attacks, Isfahan fell– Nadir Khan Afshar—winner of post-fall
struggles for control; self-proclaimed shah in 1736; short-lived
– Region became battleground for stronger neighbors
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The Mughal Empire
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Mughals in India • Babur
– Expulsion from steppes = motivation for conquest
– Turkic background– Used mobile artillery & cavalry
to defeat larger Lodi force; scared the elephants!
– outnumbered, defeated Hindu kings
– Character: military strategist, fighter, patron of arts & music, writer, musician, designer of gardens
– Capital at Delhi
Babur’s victory at Panipat, 1526
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• Akbar– height of Mughal rule– Had a vision for unity in empire– Social reforms: reconciliation
w/Hindu princes, ended jizya, Hindus in bureaucracy, allowed widows to remarry, discouraged child marriages, made sati illegal, relief from purdah (seclusion)
– Tolerance & universal religion: “Divine Faith”
– Hindu warrior aristocrats controlled peasant villages; local controls left to support centralized gov’t
– Economy: collected income via tribute, taxes
Mughals in India
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Taj MahalAgra, India1631-47
• Mughal Architecture– Red Fort, Taj Mahal (built by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his
wife)– Blends Persian & Hindu traditions (domes, arches, minarets
w/ornamentation)– Symmetry, color, creativitycreate paradise on earth
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– Peace & stability weakened by religious tensions between Muslims, Hindus, Sufis, and Sikhs
– Sikhism: new sect in NW India, tried to bridge diff bet Hinduism & Islam, but persecution of Sikhs led to a rise in anti-Muslim feelings
– From Shah Jahan’s reign on, rulers began to ignore admin., milit., & social needs for reform
– Econ production & standard of living declined– Rulers conquered new lands, but spent lots of money & did
not grow bureaucracy to govern them – Peasant uprisings, revolts of local Hindu princes– Local officials taking revenues from central gov’t– Invaders– Open to foreign influence—England waiting for economic
opportunity & colonization
Decline of Mughal India
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Akbar riding an elephant
Siege attack on Rajput forces
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Turkey commissioned by Jahangir
Madonna and Child
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Shah Jahan’s elephant
Indian Bird