Download - Chapter 1 Anatomy & Physiology 1
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Chapter 1 Anatomy & Physiology 1
Kathleen Cercone PT, PhDMartini Textbook
Call meDr. C.
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1-2 Anatomy and Physiology • Anatomy
– Describes the structures of the body• What they are made of• Where they are located• Associated structures
• Physiology– Is the study of:
• Functions of anatomical structures• Individual and cooperative functions
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1-3 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy– Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy,
examines large, visible structures • Surface anatomy: exterior features • Regional anatomy: body areas and how structures work
together in an area such as the forearm• Systemic anatomy: organ systems• Clinical anatomy: medical specialties• Developmental anatomy: from conception to death • Pathophysiology (disease)
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1-3 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology
• Physiology– Cell physiology: processes within and between
cells– Organ physiology: functions of specific organs– Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system– Pathological physiology: effects of diseases
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Levels of Organization
• Smallest to largest:1. Atoms2. Molecules3. Macromolecules4. Organelles5. Cells6. Tissues7. Organs8. Systems9. Organism
How would you order these?
osteocytecalciumfemurbone tissueskeleton
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Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 1 of 4).
Atoms in combination Complex protein molecule
Protein filaments
Chemical Level
Cellular Level
Heart musclecell
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Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 2 of 4).
Cardiac muscletissue
Tissue LevelOrgan Level
Organ systemlevel
Organismlevel
The heart
Thecardiovascular
system
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Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 3 of 4).
Major Organs• Skin• Hair• Sweat glands• Nails
Functions• Protects against
environmentalhazards
• Helps regulatebody temperature
• Provides sensoryinformation
Major Organs• Bones• Cartilages• Associated
ligaments• Bone marrow
Functions• Provides support
and protection forother tissues
• Stores calcium andother minerals
• Forms blood cells
Major Organs• Skeletal muscles
and associatedtendons
Functions• Provides
movement• Provides protection
and support forother tissues
• Generates heat thatmaintains bodytemperature
Major Organs• Brain• Spinal cord• Peripheral nerves• Sense organs
Major Organs• Pituitary gland• Thyroid gland• Pancreas• Adrenal glands• Gonads• Endocrine tissues in
other systems
Major Organs• Heart• Blood• Blood vessels
Functions• Directs immediate
responses tostimuli
• Coordinates ormoderatesactivities of otherorgan systems
• Provides andinterprets sensoryinformation aboutexternal conditions
Functions• Directs long-term
changes in theactivities of otherorgan systems
• Adjusts metabolicactivity and energyuse by the body
• Controls manystructural and functional changesduring development
Functions• Distributes blood
cells, water anddissolvedmaterialsincludingnutrients, wasteproducts,oxygen, andcarbon dioxide
• Distributes heatand assists incontrol of bodytemperature
CardiovascularEndocrineNervousMuscularSkeletalIntegumentary
THE ORGAN SYSTEMS
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Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 4 of 4) .
Major Organs• Spleen• Thymus• Lymphatic
vessels• Lymph nodes• Tonsils
Lymphatic Respiratory Digestive Urinary Male Reproductive Female Reproductive
Major Organs• Nasal cavities• Sinuses• Larynx• Trachea• Bronchi• Lungs• Alveoli
Major Organs• Teeth• Tongue• Pharynx• Esophagus• Stomach• Small intestine• Large intestine• Liver• Gallbladder• Pancreas
Major Organs• Kidneys• Ureters• Urinary bladder• Urethra
Major Organs• Testes• Epididymides• Ductus deferentia• Seminal vesicles• Prostate gland• Penis• Scrotum
Major Organs• Ovaries• Uterine tubes• Uterus• Vagina• Labia• Clitoris• Mammary glands
Functions• Defends against
infection anddisease
• Returns tissuefluids to thebloodstream
Functions• Delivers air to
alveoli (sites inlungs where gasexchange occurs)
• Provides oxygen tobloodstream
• Removes carbondioxide frombloodstream
• Produces soundsfor communication
Functions• Processes and
digests food• Absorbs and
conserves water• Absorbs nutrients• Stores energy
reserves
Functions• Excretes waste
products from theblood
• Controls waterbalance byregulating volumeof urine produced
• Stores urine priorto voluntaryelimination
• Regulates bloodion concentrationsand pH
Functions• Produces male sex
cells (sperm),seminal fluids, andhormones
• Sexual intercourse
Functions• Produces female
sex cells (oocytes)and hormones
• Supports develop-ing embryo fromconception todelivery
• Provides milk tonourish newborninfant
• Sexual intercourse
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1-5 Homeostasis
• Homeostasis is a key concept in biology and life.– The concept of homeostasis is the description for when the
internal conditions of living organisms remain stable (within a normal range), regardless of what is going on in the external environment.
– Homeostasis is the process used by the body to maintain a stable internal environment.
– What happens with disease in relation to homeostasis?
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Homeostasis• Components of a homeostatic mechanism
• Receptor (sensor) – sensitive to environmental change• Control center (integration center) – processes
information from the receptor and sends out commands• Set point (desired value) – in the control center• Effector – responds to commands opposing stimulus
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Normalconditionrestored
Normalconditiondisturbed
Sendscommands
to
Informationaffects
ThermometerAir conditionerturns on
RESPONSE:Room temperature
drops
STIMULUS:Room temperature
rises
EFFECTOR RECEPTOR
HOMEOSTASIS
Normal roomtemperature
CONTROL CENTER (Thermostat)
The setting on a thermostat establishesthe set point, or desired value, whichin this case is the temperature youselect. (In our example, the set point is22°C, or about 72°F.) The function of thethermostat is to keep room temperaturewithin acceptable limits, usually within adegree or so of the set point.
Features of homeostatic control mechanisms, as shown for themaintenance of room temperature
An example of Homeostasis and Negative Feedback in our homes
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HOMEOSTASIS
EFFECTORS RECEPTORS
CONTROL CENTER
Homeostasisrestored
HomeostasisdisturbedAt normal body temperature
(set point: 37°C or 98.6°F),the temperature control
center is relatively inactive;superficial blood flow and
sweat gland activity areat normal levels.
Homeostasis and body temperature
Increased activity in thecontrol center targets twoeffectors: (1) smooth musclein the walls of blood vesselssupplying the skin and(2) sweat glands. The smoothmuscle relaxes and the bloodvessels dilate, increasingblood flow through vesselsnear the body surface; thesweat glands accelerate theirsecretion. The skin then actslike a radiator by losing heatto the environment, and theevaporation of sweat speedsthe process.
If body temperature risesabove 37.2°C (99°F), twosets of temperaturereceptors, one in the skinand the other within thebrain, send signals to thehomeostatic control center.
The temperature controlcenter receives informationfrom the two sets oftemperature receptors andsends commands to the effectors.
Start
The homeostatic control of body temperature, which involves anegative feedback loop
Figure 1.7 1
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Negative Feedback in Thermoregulation
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1-6 Negative Feedback• The Role of Negative Feedback
– The response of the effector negates the stimulus– Body is brought back into homeostasis
• Normal range is achieved
• When negative feedback occurs, the body senses that a certain level is too high or too low and acts so the level moves in the opposite direction
• If you remember it goes in the opposite direction you will know what feedback it is
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• Positive feedback– Initial stimulus produces a response that
exaggerates or enhances the change in the original conditions
– Typically occurs when a potentially dangerous or stressful process must be completed quickly• Example: clotting mechanism
• Positive Feedback is the control mechanism in which the adjustment is made to “exaggerate and accelerate” the original change– Speed up the adjustment– Rare- only a few examples
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Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting.
Chemicals Chemicals Blood clot
Clottingaccelerates
Positivefeedback
loop
Damaged cells in the bloodvessel wall release chemi-cals that begin the clottingprocess.
The chemicals start chainreactions in which cells,cell fragments, and solubleproteins in the blood beginto form a clot.
As clotting continues, eachstep releases chemicalsthat further accelerate theprocess.
This escalating processis a positive feedbackloop that ends with theformation of a blood clot,which patches the vesselwall and stops the bleeding.
Positive Feedback in Homeostasis
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Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation.
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The Language of Anatomy=LAB
This is NOT lectured on at all. You will do this material in lab. I have worksheets for lab. The lab book will be used in this lab as well.
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Anatomical Terms
• Landmarks around the body create a map for orientation
• Based on Latin or Greek words used by ancient anatomists
• Many terms also were initially named after the discoverer or the most famous victim (diseases)• Most eponyms have been replaced by more
precise terms
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Anatomical Landmarks (Surface Anatomy)
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1-7 Anatomical Terminology• Superficial Anatomy
– Locating structures on or near the body surface• Anatomical Landmarks
– Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward
– Supine: lying down, face up– Prone: lying down, face down
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Figure 1-7 Directional References.
Right Left
Superior: Above; at a higher level (in the human body, toward the head) The head is superior to the knee.
ProximalToward an
attached baseThe shoulder isproximal to the
wrist.
Towardthe
midline
Awayfrom themidline
Proximal
MedialLateral
DistalAway from anattached baseThe fingers are
distal to thewrist.
Distal
Superficial
OTHER DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Deep
At, near, or relatively closeto the body surface
The skin is superficial tounderlying structures.
Toward the interior of thebody; farther from the surfaceThe bone of the thigh is deepto the surrounding skeletal
muscles.
CaudalToward the tail;
(coccyx inhumans)
The hips arecaudal to the
waist.
Posterior or Dorsal Anterior or VentralPosterior: The back
surfaceDorsal: The back.
(equivalent to posteriorwhen referring to the
human body)The scapula (shoulder
blade) is locatedposterior
to the rib cage.
Anterior: The frontsurface
Ventral: The bellyside. (equivalent to
anterior whenreferring to the human
body)The umbilicus (navel)
is on the anterior (or ventral)surface of the trunk.
Cranial or CephalicToward the head
The cranial, or cephalic, border ofthe pelvis is superior to the thigh.
Superior
The knee is inferior to the hip. InferiorInferior: Below; at a lower level; toward the feet
Lateral viewAnterior viewa b
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Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes.
Frontal or coronalplane
Midsagittal plane
Plane is orientedparallel to long axis
A frontal, or coronal,section separatesanterior andposterior portions ofthe body. Coronalusually refers tosections passingthrough the skull.
Directional term:frontally or coronally
Frontal plane
Plane is oriented parallel tolong axis
Sagittal plane
Directional term: sagittally
A sagittal section separatesright and left portions. Youexamine a sagittal section,but you section sagittally.In a midsagittal section, theplane passes through themidline. It separates thebody into equal right andleft sides.A parasagittal sectionmisses the midline. Itseparates the body intounequal right and left sides.
Transverse plane(inferior view)
Transverse, orhorizontal, plane
Plane is orientedperpendicular to long axis
A transverse, or cross,section separatessuperior and inferiorportions of the body.
Directional term:transversely or horizontallyOblique
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Frontal plane
Transverse plane
Sagittal plane
The major sectional planes
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Anatomical Frames of Reference
body cavity – a fluid-filled internal chamber between the organs (viscera)
and body wall
• provides cushioning• permits change in size/shape (e.g GI
tract)• prevents friction
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Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2).
Umbilicalor navel
Abdominal(abdomen)
Trunk
Mammaryor breast
Thoracic orthorax, chest
Cervical or neck
Buccal or cheek
Otic or ear
Ocular, orbitalor eye
Nasal or noseFrontal or
forehead
Cranialor skull
Cephalic or head
Oral or mouthMental or chin
Axillary or armpit
Brachialor arm
Antecubitalor front of
elbow
Facialor face
Anterior viewa
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Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 2 of 2).
a Anterior view
Pedalor foot
Femoralor thigh
Pubic(pubis)
Inguinalor groin
Manualor hand
Pelvic(pelvis)
Antebrachialor forearm
Carpal or wrist
Palmar or palm
Pollexor thumb
Patellaror kneecap
Digits(phalanges)
or fingers (digitalor phalangeal)
Digits (phalanges)or toes (digital or
phalangeal)
Cruralor leg
Tarsal orankle
Hallux orgreat toe
Trunk
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Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2).
Olecranalor back
of elbow
Upperlimb
Dorsal orback
Acromial orshoulder
Cephalicor head
Cervicalor neck
Posterior viewb
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Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks (Part 2 of 2).
Posterior view
Lowerlimb
Plantar orsole of foot
Calcaneal orheal of foot
Suralor calf
Popliteal orback of knee
Glutealor buttock
Lumbaror loin Upper
limb
b
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Body CavitiesDorsal = back side
Ventral = front side
Thoracic = chest (heart, trachea, lungs..)
Abdomen = stomach area (spleen, intestines)
Pelvic = lower abdomen (bladder, reproductive organs)
DIAPHRAGM: Separates the thoracic and pelvic region
SEROUS MEMBRANE - covers and surrounds organsSEROUS FLUID - lubricates organs
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Superficial and regional anatomy• Abdominopelvic quadrants
• Imaginary perpendicular lines that intersect at navel• Used by clinicians to determine possible cause of
patient pains, aches, or injuries• Abdominopelvic regions
• Nine regions• Preferred by anatomists• Describe the precise location and orientation of
internal organs4 quadrants – for clinical description9 regions – for anatomical description
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Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Right UpperQuadrant
(RUQ)
Right LowerQuadrant
(RLQ)
Left LowerQuadrant(LLQ)
Left UpperQuadrant(LUQ)
Abdominopelvic quadrants. The fourabdominopelvic quadrants are formed by twoperpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. Theterms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, aremost often used in clinical discussions.
a
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Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvicregions provide more precise regional descriptions.
Left hypochondriacregion
Right hypochondriac
region
Left lumbarregion
Left inguinalregion
Right lumbarregion
Right inguinal
region
Epigastricregion
Umbilicalregion
Hypogastric(pubic)region
b
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Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Anatomical relationships. The relationship betweenthe abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and thelocations of the internal organs are shown here.
Liver
Gallbladder
Large intestine
Small intestine
AppendixUrinarybladder
Spleen
Stomach
c
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1-8 Body Cavities• Serous Membranes -
– Line body cavities and cover organs– Secretes fluid into body cavities (lubrication)– Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer
• Parietal layer — lines inner surface of body way• Visceral layer — covers surface of organ (viscera always
means “organ”)• A layer of serous fluid is found inbetween
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• Serous Membrane - two layered, covers organsoOuter layer = parietalo Inner layer = visceral (lines the
organs)
• Serous fluid – lubricating fluid
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Figure 1-9b Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk.
Heart
Visceralpericardium
Parietalpericardium
Pericardialcavity
Air space
Balloon
The heart projects into the pericardial cavity like a fist pushedinto a balloon. The attachment site, corresponding to the wristof the hand, lies at the connection between the heart andmajor blood vessels. The width of the pericardial cavity isexaggerated here; normally the visceral and parietal layersare separated only by a thin layer of pericardial fluid.
Your organs move with your body, and this makes serousMembranes very important.
b
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Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes
Thoracic Cavity Pericardial Cavity
Abdominopelvic Cavity
Visceral Pleura Visceral Pericardium
Visceral Peritoneum
Pleural Cavity Pericardial Cavity Peritoneal Cavity
Parietal Pleura Parietal Pericardium
Parietal Peritoneum
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1-8 Body CavitiesThe Thoracic Cavity: superior to diaphragm; enclosed in the ribcage (anterior)
Right and left pleural cavitiesContain right and left lungs ( have serous membranes)
MediastinumUpper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymusLower portion contains pericardial cavity
The heart is located within the pericardial cavity- serous membranes
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Body cavities
• Viscera• Internal organs partially or totally enclosed by body
cavities• Connected to rest of body• Example: pericardial cavity
• Pericardium (peri-, around + cardium, heart)• Delicate serous membrane lining the pericardial
cavity• Secretes watery fluid that keeps surfaces moist and
reduces friction• Permits heart to change size and shape when beating
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The body cavities:the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity
BODY CAVITIES
THORACIC CAVITY
The diaphragm,a muscular sheet,
separates the thoraciccavity from theabdominopelvic
cavity.
THORACIC CAVITY
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
A horizontal section through thethoracic cavity shows the relationshipbetween the subdivisions of theventral body cavity in this region.
Each lung is enclosed within a pleural cavity, linedby a shiny, slippery serous membrane called thepleura (PLOO-ra).
The pericardial cavity is embedded within themediastinum, a mass of connective tissue thatseparates the two pleural cavities and stabilizes thepositions of embedded organs and blood vessels.
Note theorientation ofthe section.Unless otherwisenoted, all crosssections areshown as if theviewer werestanding at thefeet of a supineperson andlooking towardthe head.
Heart in pericardial
cavityRight lung
in rightpleural cavity
Left lungin left
pleural cavity
During development, theportion of the original ventralbody cavity extending intothe abdominopelvic cavityremains intact as theperitoneal (per-i-tō-NĒ-al)cavity, a chamber lined bya serous membrane knownas the peritoneum(per-i-tō-NĒ-um). A feworgans, such as the kidneysand pancreas, lie betweenthe peritoneal lining and themuscular wall of theabdominal cavity. Thoseorgans are said to beretroperitoneal (re-trō-per-i-tō-NĒ-al; retro, behind).
DiaphragmPeritoneum (red)
showing the boundariesof the peritoneal cavity
The abdominal cavitycontains many digestive
glands and organsRetroperitoneal areaThe pelvic cavity contains
the urinary bladder,reproductive organs, and
the last portion of thedigestive tract; many of
these structures lieposterior to, or inferior to,
the peritoneal cavity.
ABDOMINOPELVICCAVITY
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1-8 Body Cavities• The Abdominopelvic Cavity
– Abdominal cavity — superior portion• Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones• Contains digestive organs• Retroperitoneal space
– Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body wall
– Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the digestive tract
– Pelvic cavity — inferior portion• Within pelvic bones• Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder
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Terms you need to know:• Superior (cranial)• Inferior (caudal)• Ventral (anterior)• Dorsal (posterior)• Medial• Lateral• Intermediate• Proximal• Distal• Superficial (external)• Deep (internal)
• Axial• Appendicular• Saggital plane
– Midsaggital/median– Parasaggital
• Frontal (coronal) plane
• Transverse (horizontal) plane
• Oblique section