Download - Chapter 10 thinking
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Thinking
Chapter 10
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Thinking Concepts
Solving Problems
Making Decisions and Forming Judgments
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Thinking
Thinking, or cognition, refers to a process that involves knowing, understanding,
remembering, and communicating.
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Cognitive Psychologists
Thinking involves a number of mental activities, which are listed below. Cognitive
psychologists study these in great detail.
1. Concepts2. Problem solving3. Decision making4. Judgment
formation
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Concepts
The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs but
their common features define the concept of a chair.
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Category Hierarchies
We organize concepts into category hierarchies.
Courtesy of C
hristine Brune
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Development of Concepts
We form some concepts with definitions. For example, a triangle has three sides. Mostly, we form concepts with mental
images or typical examples (prototypes). For example, a robin is a prototype of a
bird, but a penguin is not.
Triangle (definition) Bird (mental image)
Daniel J. C
ox/ Getty Im
ages
J. Messerschm
idt/ The Picture C
ube
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Problem Solving
Problem solving strategies include:
1. Trial and Error2. Algorithms3. Heuristics4. Insight
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Algorithms
Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a
solution. Computers use algorithms.
S P L O Y O C H Y G
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,200 possibilities.
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Heuristics
Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that
allow us to make judgments and solve problems
efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-
prone than algorithms.
B2M
Productions/D
igital Version/G
etty Images
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Heuristics
Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems.
S P L O Y O C H Y GS P L O Y O C H G YP S L O Y O C H G YP S Y C H O L O G Y
Put a Y at the end, and see if the wordbegins to make sense.
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Insight
Insight involves a sudden novel
realization of a solution to a
problem. Humans and animals have
insight.
Grande using boxes toobtain food
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Insight
Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when an insight
strikes (the “Aha” experience), it
activates the right temporal cortex (Jung-
Beeman & others, 2004). The time
between not knowing the solution and
realizing it is about 0.3 seconds.
From M
ark Jung-Beekm
an, Northw
estern U
niversity and John Kounios, D
rexel University
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Obstacles in Solving Problems
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias.
2 – 4 – 6
Rule: Any ascending series of numbers. 1 – 2 – 3 would comply. Wason’s students had difficulty figuring out the rule due to a confirmation bias
(Wason, 1960).
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Fixation
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes
problem solving. An example of fixation is functional fixedness.
The Matchstick Problem: How
would you arrange six matches to form
four equilateral triangles?
From
“Problem
Solving” by M
. Scheerer. C
opyright © 1963 by
Scientific A
merican, Inc. A
ll Rights R
eserved.
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Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?
Candle-Mounting Problem
From
“Problem
Solving” by M
. Scheerer. C
opyright © 1963 by
Scientific A
merican, Inc. A
ll Rights R
eserved.
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The Matchstick Problem: Solution
From
“Problem
Solving” by M
. Scheerer. C
opyright © 1963 by
Scientific A
merican, Inc. A
ll Rights R
eserved.
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Candle-Mounting Problem: Solution
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Making Decision & Forming Judgments
Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions based on our intuition, seldom using systematic reasoning.
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Using and Misusing Heuristics
Two kinds of heuristics, representative heuristics and availability heuristics, have been identified by cognitive psychologists.
Amos Tversky Daniel Kahneman
Courtesy of G
reymeyer A
ward, U
niversity of L
ouisville and the Tversky fam
ily
Courtesy of G
reymeyer A
ward, U
niversity of L
ouisville and Daniel K
ahneman
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Probability that that person is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just because there are more truck drivers than
such professors.
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or
match, a particular prototype.
If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think his profession would be?
An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?
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Availability Heuristic
Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray?Whatever increases the ease of retrieving
information increases its perceived availability.
How is retrieval facilitated?
1. How recently we have heard about the event.
2. How distinct it is.3. How correct it is.
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Overconfidence
Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and the inclination to explain failures
increase our overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of
our beliefs and judgments.
In the stock market, both the seller and the buyer may be
confident about their decisions on a stock.
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Exaggerated Fear
The opposite of having overconfidence
is having an exaggerated fear about what may
happen. Such fears may be unfounded.
The 9/11 attacks led to a decline in air travel due to fear.
AP
/ Wide W
orld Photos
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The Effects of Framing
Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is
framed.
Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?
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The Belief Perseverance Phenomenon
Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary
evidence.
If you see that a country is hostile, you are likely to interpret their ambiguous
actions as a sign of hostility (Jervis, 1985).
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Perils & Powers of Intuition
Intuition may be perilous if unchecked, but may also be extremely efficient and
adaptive.