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Chapter 12: Molecular Genetics
• What You’ll Learn• How DNA was
discovered to be the genetic material & know its structure
• DNA replication• Protein synthesis• Gene regulation &
mutations
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Section 12.1: DNA: The Genetic Material
• Section Objectives:• Summarize the
experiments leading to the discovery of DNA as the gentic material
• Analyze the structure of DNA
• Describe the basic structure of the eukaryotic chromosome
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What is DNA?
• Although the environment influences how an organism develops, the genetic information that is held in the molecules of DNA ultimately determines an organism’s traits.
• DNA achieves its control by determining the structure of proteins.
• Within the structure of DNA is the information for life—the complete instructions for manufacturing all the proteins for an organism.
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Bodies are made up of cells All cells run on a set of
instructions spelled out in DNA
QuickTime™ and aTIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Bodies Cells DNA
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The “Transforming Principle”
1928
• Frederick Griffith – Streptococcus pneumonia
bacteria• was working to find cure for pneumonia
– harmless live bacteria (“rough”) mixed with heat-killed pathogenic bacteria (“smooth”) causes fatal disease in mice
– a substance passed from dead bacteria to live bacteria to change their phenotype• “Transforming Principle”
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The “Transforming Principle”
Transformation = change in phenotypesomething in heat-killed bacteria could still transmit disease-causing properties
live pathogenicstrain of bacteria
live non-pathogenicstrain of bacteria
mice die mice live
heat-killed pathogenic bacteria
mix heat-killed pathogenic & non-pathogenicbacteria
mice live mice die
A. B. C. D.
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DNA is the “Transforming Principle”
• Avery, McCarty & MacLeod– purified both DNA & proteins separately from
Streptococcus pneumonia bacteria• which will transform non-pathogenic bacteria?
– injected protein into bacteria• no effect
– injected DNA into bacteria• transformed harmless bacteria into
virulent bacteria
1944
What’s theconclusion?
mice die
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Confirmation of DNA• Hershey & Chase– classic “blender” experiment– worked with bacteriophage• viruses that infect bacteria
– grew phage viruses in 2 media, radioactively labeled with either • 35S in their proteins• 32P in their DNA
– infected bacteria with labeled phages
1952 | 1969Hershey
Why useSulfurvs.Phosphorus?
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Protein coat labeledwith 35S
DNA labeled with 32P
bacteriophages infectbacterial cells
T2 bacteriophagesare labeled withradioactive isotopesS vs. P
bacterial cells are agitatedto remove viral protein coats
35S radioactivityfound in the medium
32P radioactivity foundin the bacterial cells
Which radioactive marker is found inside the cell?Which molecule carries viral genetic info?
Hershey & Chase
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Blender experiment• Radioactive phage & bacteria in
blender– 35S phage
• radioactive proteins stayed in supernatant• therefore viral protein did NOT enter bacteria
– 32P phage• radioactive DNA stayed in pellet• therefore viral DNA did enter bacteria
– Confirmed DNA is “transforming factor”
Taaa-Daaa!
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Hershey & Chase
Alfred HersheyMartha Chase
1952 | 1969Hershey
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The structure of nucleotides
• DNA is a polymer made of repeating subunits called nucleotides.(the monomer)
• Nucleotides have three parts: a simple sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
Sugar (deoxyribose)
Nitrogenous basePhosphate group
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The structure of nucleotides• in DNA there are four possible nucleotides,
each containing one of these four bases.• The phosphate groups and deoxyribose
molecules form the backbone of the chain, and the nitrogenous bases stick out like the teeth of a zipper.
Nucleotide
Sugar-phosphate backbone
Phosphategroup
Sugar(deoxyribose)
DNA nucleotide
Nitrogenous base(A, G, C, or T)
Thymine (T)
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Chargaff
• DNA composition: “Chargaff’s rules”– varies from species to species– all 4 bases not in equal quantity– bases present in characteristic ratio• humans:
A = 30.9% T = 29.4% G = 19.9% C = 19.8%
1947
That’s interesting!What do you notice?
RulesA = TC = G
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Paired bases• DNA structure– double helix• 2 sides like a ladder
• Bases match together (– A pairs with T • A : T
– C pairs with G• C : G
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Structure of DNA
• James Watson and Francis Crick worked out the three-dimensional structure of DNA, based on work by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkens
1953 | 1962
Wilkins
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Rosalind Franklin (1920-1958)
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DNA is a double-stranded helix
• Watson and Crick also proposed that DNA is shaped like a long zipper that is twisted into a coil like a spring.
• Because DNA is composed of two strands twisted together, its shape is called double helix.
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The structure of DNA
Ribbon model
Hydrogen bond
Partial chemical structure
Computer model
Basepair
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Anti-parallel strands
–DNA molecule has “direction”–complementary
strand runs in opposite direction
3
5
5
3
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The importance of nucleotide sequencesThe sequence of nucleotides
forms the unique genetic information of an organism. The closer the relationship is between two organisms, the more similar their DNA nucleotide sequences will be.
• Scientists use nucleotide sequences to determine evolutionary relationships among organisms, to determine whether two people are related, and to identify bodies of crime victims.
Chromosome
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Organizing & packaging DNA
nucleus
cell
DNA
nucleus
cell
4 chromosomesin this organism
DNA in chromosomes ineveryday “working” cell
DNA in chromosomes in cell getting ready to divide
DNA has been “wound up”
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DNA PackingDNAdoublehelix(2-nmdiameter
Histones
“Beads ona string”
Nucleosome(10-nm diameter)
Tight helical fiber(30-nm diameter) Supercoil
(200-nm diameter)
Metaphase chromosome
700nm
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Nucleosomes • “Beads on a string”– 1st level of DNA packing– histone proteins • 8 protein molecules• positively charged amino acids • bind tightly to negatively charged
DNA
8 histone molecules