Download - Chapter 2
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LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT 17THMILLER/SPOOLMAN
CHAPTER 2Science, Matter, Energy, and Systems
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Core Case Study: A Story About a Forest
• Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire
• Compared the loss of water and nutrients from an uncut forest (control site) with one that had been stripped (experimental site)
• Stripped site:• 30-40% more runoff• More dissolved nutrients• More soil erosion
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The Effects of Deforestation on the Loss of Water and Soil Nutrients
Fig. 2-1, p. 31
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Stepped ArtFig. 2-1, p. 31
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2-1 What Do Scientists Do?
• Concept 2-1 Scientists collect data and develop theories, models, and laws about how nature works.
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Science Is a Search for Order in Nature (1)
• Identify a problem
• Find out what is known about the problem
• Ask a question to be investigated
• Gather data through experiments• Propose a scientific hypothesis
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Science Is a Search for Order in Nature (2)
• Make testable predictions
• Keep testing and making observations
• Accept or reject the hypothesis
• Scientific theory: well-tested and widely accepted hypothesis
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The Scientific Process
Fig. 2-2, p. 33
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Fig. 2-2, p. 33
Identify a problem
Find out what is known about the
problem (literature search)
Ask a question to be investigated
Perform an experiment to
answer the question
and collect data
Analyze data (check for patterns)
Scientific law Well-accepted pattern in data
Propose a hypothesis to explain data
Use hypothesis to make testable
projections
Perform an experiment to
test projections
Accept hypothesis
Revise hypothesis
Make testable
projections
Test projections
Scientific theory Well-tested and widely accepted
hypothesis
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Scientific theoryWell-tested andwidely accepted
hypothesis
Stepped Art
Testpredictions
Make testablepredictions
Accepthypothesis
Revisehypothesis
Perform an experimentto test predictions
Use hypothesis to make testable predictions
Propose an hypothesisto explain data
Analyze data(check for patterns)
Scientific lawWell-acceptedpattern in data
Perform an experimentto answer the question
and collect data
Ask a question to beinvestigated
Find out what is knownabout the problem(literature search)
Identify a problem
Fig. 2-2, p. 33
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Testing a Hypothesis
Fig. 2-3, p. 33
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Fig. 2-3, p. 33
Nothing happens when I try to turn on my flashlight.
Question: Why didn’t the light come on?
Hypothesis: Maybe the batteries are dead.
Test hypothesis with an experiment: Put in new batteries and try to turn on the flashlight.
Result: Flashlight still does not work.
New hypothesis: Maybe the bulb is burned out.
Experiment: Put in a new bulb.
Result: Flashlight works.
Conclusion: New hypothesis is verified.
Observation:
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Characteristics of Science…and Scientists
• Curiosity• Skepticism• Reproducibility• Peer review• Openness to new ideas• Critical thinking• Creativity
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Science Focus: Easter Island: Revisions to a Popular Environmental Story
• Some revisions to a popular environmental story• Polynesians arrived about 800 years ago• Population may have reached 3000• Used trees in an unsustainable manner, but rats
may have multiplied and eaten the seeds of the trees
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Stone Statues on Easter Island
Fig. 2-A, p. 35
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Scientific Theories and Laws Are the Most Important Results of Science
• Scientific theory• Widely tested• Supported by extensive evidence• Accepted by most scientists in a particular area
• Scientific law, law of nature
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The Results of Science Can Be Tentative, Reliable, or Unreliable
• Tentative science, frontier science
• Reliable science
• Unreliable science
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Science Has Some Limitations
1. Particular hypotheses, theories, or laws have a high probability of being true while not being absolute
2. Bias can be minimized by scientists
3. Environmental phenomena involve interacting variables and complex interactions
4. Statistical methods may be used to estimate very large or very small numbers
5. Scientific process is limited to the natural world
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Science Focus: Statistics and Probability
• Statistics• Collect, organize, and interpret numerical data
• Probability• The chance that something will happen or be
valid• Need large enough sample size
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2-2 What Is Matter?
• Concept 2-2 Matter consists of elements and compounds, which are in turn made up of atoms, ions, or molecules.
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Matter Consists of Elements and Compounds
• Matter• Has mass and takes up space
• Elements• Unique properties• Cannot be broken down chemically into other
substances
• Compounds• Two or more different elements bonded together
in fixed proportions
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Gold and Mercury Are Chemical Elements
Fig. 2-4a, p. 38
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Chemical Elements Used in The Book
Table 2-1, p. 38
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Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Are the Building Blocks of Matter (1)
• Atomic theory• All elements are made of atoms
• Subatomic particles• Protons with positive charge and neutrons with no charge
in nucleus• Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus
• Atomic number• Number of protons in nucleus
• Mass number • Number of protons plus neutrons in nucleus
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Model of a Carbon-12 Atom
Fig. 2-5, p. 39
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Fig. 2-5, p. 39
6 protons
6 neutrons
6 electrons
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Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Are the Building Blocks of Matter (2)
• Isotopes• Same element, different number of protons
• Ions• Gain or lose electrons• Form ionic compounds
• pH• Measure of acidity• H+ and OH-
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Chemical Ions Used in This Book
Table 2-2, p. 40
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pH Scale
Supplement 5, Figure 4
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Loss of NO3− from a Deforested Watershed
Fig. 2-6, p. 40
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Fig. 2-6, p. 40
Undisturbed (control) watershed
Disturbed (experimental) watershedN
itrat
e (N
O3– )
conc
entr
atio
n(m
illig
ram
s pe
r lite
r)
Year
1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972
40
60
20
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Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Are the Building Blocks of Matter (3)
• Molecule• Two or more atoms of the same or different
elements held together by chemical bonds
• Compounds
• Chemical formula
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Compounds Used in This Book
Table 2-3, p. 40
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Organic Compounds Are the Chemicals of Life
• Organic compounds• Hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons• Simple carbohydrates• Macromolecules: complex organic molecules
• Complex carbohydrates• Proteins• Nucleic acids• Lipids
• Inorganic compounds
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Glucose Structure
Supplement 4, Fig. 4
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Amino Acids and Proteins
Supplement 4, Fig. 8
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Nucleotide Structure in DNA and RNA
Supplement 4, Fig. 9
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DNA Double Helix Structure and Bonding
Supplement 4, Fig. 10
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Fatty Acid Structure and Trigyceride
Supplement 4, Fig. 11
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Matter Comes to Life through Genes, Chromosomes, and Cells
• Cells: fundamental units of life; all organisms are composed of one or more cells
• Genes • Sequences of nucleotides within DNA• Instructions for proteins• Create inheritable traits
• Chromosomes: composed of many genes
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Cells, Nuclei, Chromosomes, DNA, and Genes
Fig. 2-7, p. 42
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Fig. 2-7, p. 42
A human body contains trillions of cells, each with an identical set of genes.
Each human cell (except for red blood cells) contains a nucleus.
Each cell nucleus has an identical set of chromosomes, which are found in pairs.
A specific pair of chromosomes contains one chromosome from each parent.
Each chromosome contains a long DNA molecule in the form of a coiled double helix.
Genes are segments of DNA on chromosomes that contain instructions to make proteins—the building blocks of life.
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Stepped Art
A human body contains trillionsof cells, each with an identical setof genes.
Each human cell (except for redblood cells) contains a nucleus.
Each cell nucleus has an identical setof chromosomes, which are found inpairs.
A specific pair of chromosomescontains one chromosome from eachparent.
Each chromosome contains a longDNA molecule in the form of a coileddouble helix.
Genes are segments of DNA onchromosomes that contain instructionsto make proteins—the building blocksof life.
Fig. 2-7, p. 42
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Some Forms of Matter Are More Useful than Others
• High-quality matter• Highly concentrated• Near earth’s surface• High potential as a resource
• Low-quality matter• Not highly concentrated• Deep underground or widely dispersed• Low potential as a resource
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Examples of Differences in Matter Quality
Fig. 2-8, p. 42
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Fig. 2-8, p. 42
High Quality Low Quality
Solid Gas
Salt Solution of salt in water
Coal Coal-fired power plant emissions
Gasoline Automobile emissions
Aluminum can Aluminum ore
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2-3 What Happens When Matter Undergoes Change?
• Concept 2-3 Whenever matter undergoes a physical or chemical change, no atoms are created or destroyed (the law of conservation of matter).
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Matter Undergoes Physical, Chemical, and Nuclear Changes
• Physical change• No change in chemical composition
• Chemical change, chemical reaction• Change in chemical composition• Reactants and products
• Nuclear change• Natural radioactive decay
• Radioisotopes: unstable• Nuclear fission• Nuclear fusion
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Types of Nuclear Changes
Fig. 2-9, p. 43
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Fig. 2-9a, p. 43
Radioactive decay occurs when nuclei of unstable isotopes spontaneously emit fast-moving chunks of matter (alpha particles or beta particles), high-energy radiation (gamma rays), or both at a fixed rate. A particular radioactive isotope may emit any one or a combination of the three items shown in the diagram.
Radioactive isotope
Radioactive decay
Gamma rays
Alpha particle (helium-4 nucleus)
Beta particle (electron)
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Fig. 2-9b, p. 43
Nuclear fissionUranium-235
Uranium-235
Neutron Energy
Fissionfragment
n
nn
nn n
Energy
Energy
Energy
Fissionfragment
Radioactive isotope Radioactive decay occurs when nuclei of unstable isotopesspontaneously emit fast-moving chunks of matter (alpha particles or beta particles), high-energy radiation (gamma rays), or both at a fixed rate. A particular radioactive isotope may emit any one or a combination of the three items shown in the diagram.
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Neutron
Uranium-235
Fissionfragment
Fissionfragment
Energyn
n
n
Energy
Energy
n
n
n
Energy
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Stepped ArtFig. 2-9b, p. 43
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Fig. 2-9c, p. 43
Nuclear fusion occurs when two isotopes of light elements, suchas hydrogen, are forced together at extremely high temperaturesuntil they fuse to form a heavier nucleus and release a tremendousamount of energy.
Hydrogen-3(tritium nucleus)
100million °C
Reactionconditions
Neutron
Energy
ProductsNeutron
Nuclear fusion
Fuel
Hydrogen-2(deuterium nucleus)
Helium-4 nucleusProton
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We Cannot Create or Destroy Matter
• Law of conservation of matter
• Whenever matter undergoes a physical or chemical change, no atoms are created or destroyed
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2-4 What is Energy and What Happens When It Undergoes Change?
• Concept 2-4A When energy is converted from one form to another in a physical or chemical change, no energy is created or destroyed (first law of thermodynamics).
• Concept 2-4B Whenever energy is changed from one form to another in a physical or chemical change, we end up with lower-quality or less usable energy than we started with (second law of thermodynamics).
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Energy Comes in Many Forms (1)
• Kinetic energy • Flowing water• Wind • Heat• Transferred by radiation, conduction, or convection
• Electromagnetic radiation
• Potential energy • Stored energy • Can be changed into kinetic energy
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Wind’s Kinetic Energy Moves This Turbine
Fig. 2-10, p. 44
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Fig. 2-11, p. 45
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Fig. 2-11, p. 45
Visible light
Gamma rays X rays
Shorter wavelengths and higher energy
Longer wavelengths and lower energy
UV radiation
Infrared radiation Microwaves TV, Radio waves
Wavelengths (not to scale)
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 0.1 10 100 0.1 1 10 1 10 100
Nanometers Micrometers Centimeters Meters
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Potential Energy
Fig. 2-12, p. 45
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Energy Comes in Many Forms (2)
• Sun provides 99% of earth’s energy• Warms earth to comfortable temperature• Plant photosynthesis• Winds • Hydropower• Biomass • Fossil fuels: oil, coal, natural gas
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Nuclear Energy to Electromagnetic Radiation
Fig. 2-13, p. 46
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Fossil fuels
Fig. 2-14a, p. 46
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Some Types of Energy Are More Useful Than Others
• High-quality energy• High capacity to do work• Concentrated• High-temperature heat• Strong winds• Fossil fuels
• Low-quality energy• Low capacity to do work • Dispersed
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Ocean Heat Is Low-Quality Energy
Fig. 2-15, p. 47
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Energy Changes Are Governed by Two Scientific Laws
• First Law of Thermodynamics• Law of conservation of energy• Energy is neither created nor destroyed in
physical and chemical changes• Second Law of Thermodynamics• Energy always goes from a more useful to a less
useful form when it changes from one form to another
• Light bulbs and combustion engines are very inefficient: produce wasted heat
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Energy-Wasting Technologies
Fig. 2-16a, p. 48
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2-5 What Are Systems and How Do They Respond to Change?
• Concept 2-5 Systems have inputs, flows, and outputs of matter and energy, and feedback can affect their behavior.
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Systems Have Inputs, Flows, and Outputs
• System• Set of components that interact in a regular way• Human body, earth, the economy
• Inputs from the environment
• Flows, throughputs of matter and energy
• Outputs to the environment
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Inputs, Throughput, and Outputs of an Economic System
Fig. 2-17, p. 48
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Fig. 2-17, p. 48
Inputs (from environment) Throughputs
Outputs (to environment)
Energy resources
Work or products
Matter resources
System processes
Waste and pollution
Information Heat
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Systems Respond to Change through Feedback Loops
• Positive feedback loop• Causes system to change further in the same
direction• Can cause major environmental problems
• Negative, or corrective, feedback loop• Causes system to change in opposite direction
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Positive Feedback Loop
Fig. 2-18, p. 49
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Fig. 2-18, p. 49
Decreasing vegetation...
... which causes more vegetation to die.
... leads to erosion and nutrient loss...
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Negative Feedback Loop
Fig. 2-19, p. 50
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Fig. 2-19, p. 50
House warms
Temperature reaches desired setting and
furnace goes off
Furnace on Furnace off
House cools
Temperature drops below desired setting and furnace goes on
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Time Delays Can Allow a System to Reach a Tipping Point
• Time delays vary• Between the input of a feedback stimulus and the
response to it
• Tipping point, threshold level• Causes a shift in the behavior of a system• Melting of polar ice• Population growth
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System Effects Can Be Amplified through Synergy
• Synergistic interaction, synergy • Two or more processes combine in such a way
that combined effect is greater than the two separate effects
• Helpful• Studying with a partner
• Harmful• E.g., Smoking and inhaling asbestos particles
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The Usefulness of Models for Studying Systems
1. Identify major components of systems and interactions within system, and then write equations
2. Use computer to describe behavior, based on the equations
3. Compare projected behavior with known behavior
• Can use a good model to answer “if-then“ questions
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Three Big Ideas
1. There is no away.
2. You cannot get something for nothing.
3. You cannot break even.