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Cognitive and Language Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Chapter 6Part II
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Language
• A social tool consisting of a complex set of rules for using symbols
• Limited number of words provide an unlimited number of messages
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Necessary Skills for Language
• Distinguish sound and sound patterns• Phonemes
• Learn the meaning of words• Semantics
• Learn to put words together• Syntax
• Learn to use language in a social context• Pragmatics
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Distinguishing Speech Sounds
• Languages differ in the number and types of phonemes used
• At birth, infants can hear all phonemes
• By 10 months, infants lose sensitivity to unused phonemes
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Early Speech Sounds
• Cooing• Soft, repetitive vowel sounds such as “ahh”
and “ooh”
• Babbling• Repeating consonant-vowel combinations
such as “mama” or “dada” two or more times
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First Words
• Receptive language • Children’s understanding of
language
• Expressive language• Children’s ability to produce
language
• Receptive language precedes expressive language
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Developmental Course• In the first year, infants
• Communicate through gestures • Produce word-like sounds• Respond to words
• 12 months• First word
• Typically the name of common object or person• Indicates gains in abstract thinking
• Holophrases• Individual words that convey as much meaning as sentences
• i.e., “milk” may mean “I want milk.”
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Developmental Course
• 12-18 months• Add about 3 words/month
• 18-24 months• Vocabulary “explosion”• Use of words in social rituals
• 2 years• Words indicating success (“hooray”) and failure (“uh-oh”) are used • New words are invented• Acquire about 10 words/day
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Over- and Under-Extending Meaning
• Overextension• The use of words to refer to objects or things that are outside the
bounds of the category named by the word
• Underextension• The use of words to refer to fewer items than the word actually
names
• Both are common childhood language mistakes
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First Sentences• Telegraphic speech
• Early language in which only highly informative words are used and less informative words are neglected
• Order of words illustrates grammatical knowledge
• Gradually becomes elaborated
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Early Talkers
• Children between 11-20 months of age in the top 10% for vocabulary production
• Early talkers are normal in comprehension but exceedingly high in their production of speech
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Late Talkers
• Children at the bottom of the vocabulary production scale relative to peers
• Mixed developmental outcome• About half catch up within 1 year• About half continue to show delays
• Risk factors• Children in families of low socioeconomic status• Children with the greatest language development delays• Children with the smallest expressive vocabularies
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Reinforcement-Based Theories• Emphasis on environmental influences
• Learning occurs via reinforcement of correct and grammatical forms of speech
• Caregivers encourage infants to talk and reinforce their talking with praise, affection, and attention
• This motivates children to communicate
• Learning also occurs via observation and imitation of others
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Environment-Based Theories
• Rewards are less central than is exposure to the environment
• The regularities children hear in speech provide the verbal input for language• “Statistical learning”
• Learning which sounds go together helps language acquisition
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Objections to Learning-Based Theories
• Do not adequately explain the development of grammar
• Parents rarely reward or punish children’s grammar
• Children create novel words and phrases they could not have heard anyone say before
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Innate Theories of Language
• Humans have a species-specific capacity for learning language
• Children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) in their brain that allows them to understand the universal grammar of all human languages
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Evidence
• Children all over the world acquire language in similar ways
• The brain is specialized for language• Different aspects of language are processed in specific locations• These language “modules” are evidence of evolutionary wiring
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Critical Periods• Critical period for language acquisition from about 2 years -
puberty• Rapid brain development in the first years of life is tied to
language abilities
• Without language exposure during the critical period, the ability to fully develop language is lost
• Immigrants master languages more or less successfully depending on age at immigration
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Social Interaction Theories
• The social context of language is a fundamental part of language development
• By talking to them, caregivers expose infants to the rules, contexts, and patterns of speech
• Child’s active participation is crucial
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Child-Directed Speech
• Simple, repetitive sentences spoken in a high-pitched voice
• Exaggerated intonation to direct and maintain the child’s attention
• A simple, repetitious vocabulary focused on present events
• A modification of words that may be difficult for the child
• There are both cultural and individual differences in the amount used
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Teaching by Exposure
• Expansion and Extension• Taking young children’s simplified language and adding complexity
and completeness to it
• So, if a child says, "Puppy outside....”• We can expand this utterance by saying, "Puppy IS outside“
• We've expanded because we've kept the word order the same (puppy is the first word, outside is the second- and we haven't changed this), but we've made it just a bit longer
• We can extend this utterance instead by saying, "He's barking" • We've extended the conversation by adding a bit more information. This is the key to
extension
• Acts as scaffolding
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Language Learning in Deaf Children
• Deaf children learn sign language at the same rate and in the same pattern as speaking children
• Even if not exposed to sign language, they will attempt to communicate with gestures
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The Resiliency of Language
• Hearing children of deaf parents will learn to speak with only 5-10 hours/week of exposure to hearing speakers
• Blind children do not experience delays in language development
• Children with left hemisphere brain damage can often recover language abilities
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The Fragility of Language
• Not all aspects of language are resilient
• The ability to acquire language diminishes with age
• The sensitive period for acquisition gradually closes• This is supported by brain imaging studies, especially for
grammar