Chapter 7 Key Questions Do infants experience emotions?
When?
What sort of mental lives do infants have? What is attachment in
infancy and how does it affect a persons future social competence?
What roles do other people play in infants social development? What
individual differences distinguish one infant from another? How
does nonparental child care impact infants? What Emotions and When?
Interest Social Smile Anger Sadness Fear
Page 179 Emotions in Infancy: Do Infants Experience Emotional Highs
and Lows?
Infants display a fairly wide range of emotional expressions.
According to research, almost all mothers think that by the age of
1 month, their babies have expressed interest and joy. In addition,
84% of mothers think their infants have expressed anger, 75%
surprise, 58% fear, and 34% sadness. Emotions in Infancy: Do
Infants Experience Emotional Highs and Lows?
Research also finds that interest, distress, and disgust are
present at birth, and that other emotions emerge over the next few
months. Although infants display similar kinds of emotions, the
degree of emotional expressivity varies among infants. Especially
from different cultures. Experiencing Emotions
The fact that children display nonverbal expressions in a manner
similar to that of adults does not necessarily mean that their
actual experience is identical. However, most developmental
researchers argue that the nonverbal expressions of infants
represent actual emotional experiences. It now seems clear that
infants are born with an innate repertoire of emotional
expressions. Stranger Anxiety and Separation Anxiety
Stranger anxiety The caution and wariness displayed by infants when
encountering an unfamiliar person (6-9 months-begins, butbut peaks
months) Separation anxiety The distress displayed by infants when a
customary care provider departs (Begins at 7-8 months and peaks at
14) Stranger anxiety and separation anxiety represent important
social progress.Emphasize cognitive advances and social bonds
Smiling Social smile Smiling in response to other individuals
As babies get older, their social smiles become directed toward
particular individuals, not just anyone. By the age of 18 months,
social smiling, directed more toward mothers and other caregivers,
becomes more frequent than smiling directed toward nonhuman
objects. Decoding Others Facial and Vocal Expressions
Infants seem to be able to discriminate vocal expressions of
emotion at a slightly earlier age than they can interpret facial
expressions. Scientists know more about the sequence in which
nonverbal facial decoding ability progresses. By the time they
reach the age of 4 months, infants may already have begun to
understand the emotions behind facial and vocal expressions. This
all relates to being around people Social Referencing: Feeling What
Others Feel
Social referencing The intentional search for information about
others feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain
circumstances and events Social referencing first occurs around the
age of 8 or 9 months. It is a fairly sophisticated social ability:
Infants need it not only to understand the significance of others
behavior, but also the meaning of those behaviors within the
context of a specific situation The Development of Self: Do Infants
Know Who They Are?
Self-awareness Knowledge of oneself At around 17 to 24 months,
children begin to show awareness of their own capabilities.
Childrens cultural upbringing also impacts the development of
self-recognition. Foundation of self-concept=multi-dimensional
construct that refers to an individual's perception of "self" in
relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics (and
non-academics), gender roles and sexuality, racial identity, and
many others Theory of Mind: Infants Perspectiveson the Mental Lives
of Othersand Themselves
Theory of mind Knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and
how it affects behavior (Begin to understand that behaviors have
meaning) Infants learn to see other people as compliant agents,
beings similar to themselves who behave under their own power and
who have the capacity to respond to infants requests. Empathy An
emotional response that corresponds to the feelings of another
person Forming Relationships
The arrival of a newborn brings a dramatic change to a familys
dynamics. (Review page 185) The bonds that grow between infants and
their parents, siblings, family, and others provide the foundation
for a lifetimes worth of social relationships. Attachment-Lorenz
and Harlow
* Conrad Lorenz - Attachment is innate.Baby ducks study, or
imprinting Harry Harlows Research with monkeys. Contact comfort is
crucial for children.Physical needs such as food alone do not form
relationships This is reason for immediate bonding after birth
Harry Harlow Attachment: Forming Social Bonds
Attachment The positive emotional bond that develops between a
child and a particular individual When children experience
attachment to a given person, they feel pleasure when they are with
them and feel comforted by their presence at times of distress. As
children become more independent, they can progressively roam
farther away from their secure base. Attachment: Forming Social
Bonds
Ainsworth Strange Situation A sequence of staged episodes that
illustrate the strength of attachment between a child and
(typically) his or her mother Secure attachment pattern A style of
attachment in which children use the mother as a kind of home base
and are at ease when she is present; when she leaves, they become
upset and go to her as soon as she returns (Table 7-1) Infant
Attachment page 186 Attachment Patterns Avoidant attachment pattern
A style of attachment in which children do not seek proximity to
the mother; after the mother has left, they seem to avoid her when
she returns as if they are angered by her behavior Attachment
Patterns Ambivalent attachment pattern A style of attachment in
which children display a combination of positive and negative
reactions to their mothers; they show great distress when the
mother leaves, but upon her return they may simultaneously seek
close contact but also hit and kick her Attachment Patterns
Disorganized-disoriented attachment pattern A style of attachment
in which children show inconsistent, often contradictory behavior,
such as approaching the mother when she returns but not looking at
her; they may be the least securely attached children of all
Attachment-Which Parent
Who would you say is your home base? Which parent creates the
strongest attachment? How is attachment culturally different?
(Relate to the concept of independence.Our culture strives for this
within our children) Mothers and Attachment
Sensitivity to their infants needs and desires is the hallmark of
mothers of securely attached infants. Research has shown that
overly responsive mothers are just as likely to have insecurely
attached children as under-responsive mothers. In contrast, others
whose communication involves interactional synchrony are more
likely to produce secure attachment. Fathers and Attachment
Research has shown that fathers expressions of nurturance, warmth,
affection, support, and concern are extremely important to their
childrens emotional and social well-being. Certain kinds of
psychological disorders, such as substance abuse and depression,
have been found to be related more to the fathers than to the
mothers behavior Infant Interactions: Developing a Working
Relationship
Research shows that infants may develop multiple attachment
relationships. Variations in attachment show that developing
relationships is an ongoing process throughout our lifetimes.
Infant Interactions: Developing a Working Relationship
Mutual regulation model The model in which infants and parents
learn to communicate emotional states to one another and to respond
appropriately Reciprocal socialization A process in which infants
behaviors invite further responses from parents and other
caregivers, which in turn bring about further responses from the
infants What is this working relationship?
Infant Signals Need (crying, smiling, hands out) How do we respond?
Infant Signals that Needs are (How do we offer care?) met. * Care
giver interacts * Infant learns to recognize How do we know infant
caregiver. Is OK? What Attachment occurs between does the infant
do? caregiver and infant Infant-Caregiver Interation (page 191)
Infants Sociability With Their Peers: InfantInfant
Interaction
Babies react positively to the presence of peers from early in
life, and they engage in rudimentary forms of social interaction.
Infants sociability is expressed in several ways and generally
rises with age. As infants age, they begin to imitate each other.
To some developmentalists, the capacity of young children to engage
in imitation suggests that imitation may be inborn. Differences
Among Infants
Differences among infants include overall personality and
temperament, and differences in the lives they lead. Differences
are also based on their gender, the nature of their families, and
the ways in which they are cared for. Personality Development: The
Characteristics That Make Infants Unique
Personality The sum total of the enduring characteristics that
differentiate one individual from another (Complete Personality
Survey) Eriksons theory of psychosocial development The theory that
considers how individuals come to understand themselves and the
meaning of othersand their ownbehavior Personality Development: The
Characteristics That Make Infants Unique
Trust-versus-mistrust stage According to Erikson, the period during
which infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust, largely
depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers
Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage The period during which,
according to Erikson, toddlers (aged 18 months to 3 years) develop
independence and autonomy if they are allowed the freedom to
explore, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and
overprotected Temperament: Stabilities in Infant Behavior
Temperament Patterns of arousal and emotionality that represent
consistent and enduring characteristics in an individual
Temperament refers to how children behave, as opposed to what they
do or why they do it. Temperament: Stabilities in Infant
Behavior
Infants show temperamental differences in general disposition from
the time of birth, initially being largely due to genetic factors,
and temperament is fairly stable well into adolescence. However, it
is not fixed and unchangeable. Child rearing practices can modify.
Dimensions of Temperament page 195 Categorizing Temperament: Easy,
Difficult, and Slow-to-Warm Babies
Easy babies Babies who have a positive disposition; their body
functions operate regularly, and they are adaptable Difficult
babies Babies who have negative moods and are slow to adapt to new
situations; when confronted with a new situation, they tend to
withdraw Categorizing Temperament: Easy, Difficult, and
Slow-to-Warm Babies
Slow-to-warm babies, or Inhibited -Babies who are inactive, showing
relatively calm reactions to their environment; their moods are
generally negative, and they withdraw from new situations, adapting
slowly See video clips The Consequences of Temperament: Does
Temperament Matter?
Goodness-of-fit The notion that development is dependent on the
degree of match between childrens temperament and the nature and
demands of the environment in which they are being raised Research
suggests that certain temperaments are, in general, more adaptive
than others. The Consequences of Temperament: Does Temperament
Matter?
Temperament seems to be at least weakly related to infants
attachment to their adult caregivers. Cultural differences also
have a major influence on the consequences of a particular
temperament. The Biological Basis of Temperament
From the behavioral genetics perspective, temperamental
characteristics are seen as inherited traits that are fairly stable
during childhood and across the entire life span. These traits are
viewed as making up the core of personality and playing a
substantial role in future development. Gender: Boys in Blue, Girls
in Pink
Parents play with boy and girl babies differently. The behavior
exhibited by girls and boys is interpreted in very different ways
by adults. Gender The sense of being male or female All cultures
prescribe gender roles for males and females, but these roles
differ greatly between cultures. Gender Differences There is a
considerable amount of disagreement over both the extent and causes
of such gender differences, even though most agree that boys and
girls do experience at least partially different worlds based on
gender. Differences between male and female infants, however, are
generally minor. Gender Roles Gender differences emerge more
clearly as children age and become increasingly influenced by the
gender roles that society sets out for them. Societal encouragement
and reinforcement do not completely explain differences in behavior
between boys and girls. Differences in behavior between boys and
girls begin in infancy, and continue throughout childhood (and
beyond). Family Life in the 21st Century
Key statistics suggest that many infants are being raised in
environments in which substantial stressors are present. Such
stress makes it an unusually difficult task to raise childrenwhich
is never easy, even under the best circumstances. On the other
hand, society is adapting to the new realities of family life in
the 21st century.