Chapter 7:Chapter 7:
Social Stratification and Social ClassSocial Stratification and Social Class
What to Expect in This What to Expect in This Chapter...Chapter... What is Social Stratification?What is Social Stratification? Social MobilitySocial Mobility Stratification SystemsStratification Systems Dimensions of StratificationDimensions of Stratification Theories of StratificationTheories of Stratification Social Class in the United StatesSocial Class in the United States Poverty in the United StatesPoverty in the United States Consequences of Social StratificationConsequences of Social Stratification
What is Social What is Social Stratification?Stratification?
Social stratification is Social stratification is “...the division of society “...the division of society into levels, steps or positions”into levels, steps or positions”
Stratification is, in essence, the Stratification is, in essence, the structured structured inequalityinequality of entire categories of people of entire categories of people
Stratification is different than mere Stratification is different than mere inequalityinequality, , which refers to the uneven distribution of which refers to the uneven distribution of opportunities and rewards to individuals and opportunities and rewards to individuals and groups.groups.
When these inequalities becomes structured When these inequalities becomes structured into society and passed on from generation to into society and passed on from generation to generation, we have social stratificationgeneration, we have social stratification
Social MobilitySocial Mobility
Social mobilitySocial mobility refers to the movement of refers to the movement of persons or groups from one social stratum to persons or groups from one social stratum to anotheranother
Social mobility is more possible in Social mobility is more possible in open open societiessocieties which provide greater opportunities which provide greater opportunities for mobility, than in for mobility, than in closed societiesclosed societies which fixes which fixes one’s position at birthone’s position at birth
Sociologists distinguish between several types Sociologists distinguish between several types of mobilityof mobility
Types of Social MobilityTypes of Social Mobility
Direction of MovementDirection of Movement
AcrossAcross Up or DownUp or Down
Horizontal MobilityHorizontal Mobility Vertical MobilityVertical Mobility
Time Frame for MobilityTime Frame for Mobility
Single GenerationSingle Generation Two or More GenerationsTwo or More Generations
Intra-generational Intra-generational MobilityMobility
Inter-generational Inter-generational MobilityMobility
Factors Affecting Social Factors Affecting Social MobilityMobility
Sociologists have identified several Sociologists have identified several structural-level factors which impact the structural-level factors which impact the likelihood of social mobilitylikelihood of social mobility• Economic ConditionsEconomic Conditions
• Number of people in the workforceNumber of people in the workforce
• Values and educational levelValues and educational level
Types of Stratification Types of Stratification SystemsSystems
Caste systemsCaste systems are very rigid, are very rigid, closed systems of stratification closed systems of stratification based on ascribed characteristics based on ascribed characteristics such as skin color or family such as skin color or family identityidentity
Estate systemsEstate systems are also closed are also closed systems based largely on systems based largely on inheritanceinheritance
Class systemsClass systems are open systems are open systems that permit meaningful social that permit meaningful social mobilitymobility
Dimensions of Social Dimensions of Social StratificationStratification
Wealth—Wealth—the economic assets of an the economic assets of an individual, including income, individual, including income, monetary assets and other holdingsmonetary assets and other holdings
PowerPower—the ability to attain goals and —the ability to attain goals and maintain influence over others, even maintain influence over others, even in the absence of their consentin the absence of their consent
Prestige—Prestige—the approval and respect the approval and respect received from other members of received from other members of societysociety
Prestige Rankings of Prestige Rankings of Various OccupationsVarious Occupations
OccupationOccupation ScoreScorePhysicianPhysician 8686
College ProfessorCollege Professor 7878
LawyerLawyer 7272
High School TeacherHigh School Teacher 6666
SociologistSociologist 6565
Police OfficerPolice Officer 6060
Social WorkerSocial Worker 5252
CarpenterCarpenter 4343
Sales ClerkSales Clerk 2929
Garbage CollectorGarbage Collector 1313
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Theories of Stratification: Theories of Stratification: Functionalist TheoryFunctionalist Theory
You will remember that functionalist theory You will remember that functionalist theory understands society as a “system” or “organism”understands society as a “system” or “organism”
As functionalists, Kingsley Davis and Wilbert As functionalists, Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore contended that stratification was a Moore contended that stratification was a necessity for society because:necessity for society because:• Society has numerous positions that must be fulfilled if Society has numerous positions that must be fulfilled if
it is to function properlyit is to function properly• Some positions, however are more important for the Some positions, however are more important for the
maintenance of society (e.g., physicians)maintenance of society (e.g., physicians)• Finally, some positions require special talents that are Finally, some positions require special talents that are
not generally prevalent in the populationnot generally prevalent in the population Hence, functionally important positions and/or Hence, functionally important positions and/or
positions requiring rare talent are rewarded most positions requiring rare talent are rewarded most highlyhighly
Criticisms of Functional Criticisms of Functional TheoryTheory
Ex Post Facto Judgment of Functional Ex Post Facto Judgment of Functional Importance of PositionsImportance of Positions• Critics question the functional importance of Critics question the functional importance of
certain highly rewarded positions such as certain highly rewarded positions such as actors and sports figures, in contrast to actors and sports figures, in contrast to positions such as school teachers or social positions such as school teachers or social workersworkers
The Stratification System itself Inhibits The Stratification System itself Inhibits Talent and AbilitiesTalent and Abilities• Many barriers are placed in the way of Many barriers are placed in the way of
individuals from lower classes to keep them individuals from lower classes to keep them from competing effectivelyfrom competing effectively
Theories of Stratification: Theories of Stratification: Marxist Conflict TheoryMarxist Conflict Theory
Suggests that social stratification is Suggests that social stratification is determined by the the determined by the the relations of relations of productionproduction• bourgeoisie--bourgeoisie--capitalists who own the capitalists who own the
means of productionmeans of production• proletariat--proletariat--wage laborers who sell their wage laborers who sell their
labor to bourgeoisielabor to bourgeoisie Interests of these two classes are Interests of these two classes are
intrinsically opposedintrinsically opposed• Power of the capitalists allows them to Power of the capitalists allows them to
impose their will and realize their interestsimpose their will and realize their interests• According to Marx, the proletariat will According to Marx, the proletariat will
eventually develop a eventually develop a class consciousnessclass consciousness, , and ultimately overthrow the capitalistsand ultimately overthrow the capitalists
Comparing Functional and Conflict TheoriesComparing Functional and Conflict TheoriesFunctional TheoryFunctional Theory Conflict TheoryConflict Theory
Stratification is universal, necessary Stratification is universal, necessary and inevitableand inevitable
Stratification is universal, but not Stratification is universal, but not necessary or inevitablenecessary or inevitable
The social system shapes the The social system shapes the stratification systemstratification system
The stratification system shapes the The stratification system shapes the social systemsocial system
Stratification arises from societal need Stratification arises from societal need for integration and coordinationfor integration and coordination
Stratification arises from group Stratification arises from group competition and conflictcompetition and conflict
Stratification facilitates the optimal Stratification facilitates the optimal functioning of societyfunctioning of society
Stratification impedes the optimal Stratification impedes the optimal functioning of societyfunctioning of society
Stratification is an expression of Stratification is an expression of commonly shared social valuescommonly shared social values
Stratification is an expression of the Stratification is an expression of the values of powerful groupsvalues of powerful groups
Power is distributed legitimately in Power is distributed legitimately in societysociety
Power is distributed illegitimately in Power is distributed illegitimately in societysociety
Tasks and rewards are allocated Tasks and rewards are allocated equitablyequitably
Tasks and rewards are not allocated Tasks and rewards are not allocated equitablyequitably
The economic dimension is subordinate The economic dimension is subordinate to other dimensions of societyto other dimensions of society
The economic dimension is paramount The economic dimension is paramount in societyin society
Stratification systems generally change Stratification systems generally change through evolutionthrough evolution
Stratification systems change through Stratification systems change through revolutionrevolution
Social Class in the United Social Class in the United StatesStates Sociologists are not agreed as to how Sociologists are not agreed as to how
social classes should be distinguishedsocial classes should be distinguished Most commonly, 5 classes are identified:Most commonly, 5 classes are identified:
• Upper ClassUpper Class• Upper-Middle ClassUpper-Middle Class• Lower Middle ClassLower Middle Class• Working ClassWorking Class• Lower ClassLower Class
Each of these classes represent differences Each of these classes represent differences in both income and lifestyle characteristicsin both income and lifestyle characteristics
Occupational and Educational Correlates of Social ClassOccupational and Educational Correlates of Social ClassSocial ClassSocial Class OccupationOccupation EducationEducation
Upper ClassUpper Class
Corporate Ownership;Corporate Ownership;
Upper-Echelon Upper-Echelon Politics;Politics;
Honorofic positions Honorofic positions
Liberal Arts education Liberal Arts education at elite schoolsat elite schools
Upper-Middle ClassUpper-Middle ClassProfessional and Professional and technical fields; technical fields; managers; proprietersmanagers; proprieters
College and graduate College and graduate school trainingschool training
Lower-Middle ClassLower-Middle Class
Clerical and sales; Clerical and sales; small business small business owners; semi-owners; semi-professionalsprofessionals
High School; some High School; some collegecollege
Working ClassWorking ClassSkilled and Skilled and semiskilled manual semiskilled manual labor; crafts; foremenlabor; crafts; foremen
Some or all of high Some or all of high schoolschool
Lower ClassLower Class
Unskilled labor; Unskilled labor; service work; farm service work; farm labor; private labor; private household workhousehold work
Some or all of high Some or all of high school school
Income Distribution Across the Income Distribution Across the Social ClassesSocial Classes
QuintileQuintile Average IncomeAverage Income Percentage of All Percentage of All IncomeIncome
Wealthiest 5%Wealthiest 5% $142,021 +$142,021 + 21.5%21.5%
Wealthiest Quintile Wealthiest Quintile (20%)(20%)
$79,372 +$79,372 + 49.4%49.4%
Fourth QuintileFourth Quintile $50,520 - $79,374$50,520 - $79,374 23.2%23.2%
Third QuintileThird Quintile $32,000 - $50,519$32,000 - $50,519 14.9%14.9%
Second QuintileSecond Quintile $17,196 – 31,999$17,196 – 31,999 8.9%8.9%
Poorest QuintilePoorest Quintile Less than $17,196Less than $17,196 3.6%3.6%
PovertyPoverty
Approximately 12 million people officially Approximately 12 million people officially live in povertylive in poverty
As explained on the following several As explained on the following several slides:slides:• Poverty does not affect all segments of the Poverty does not affect all segments of the
population equallypopulation equally• There is disagreement among social There is disagreement among social
scientists about how to measure poverty, and scientists about how to measure poverty, and hence disagreement about how much poverty hence disagreement about how much poverty exists in the United Statesexists in the United States
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Poverty’s Biggest Victims: Poverty’s Biggest Victims: EthnicityEthnicity
23,6%
22,8%
7,7%
0,0% 5,0% 10,0% 15,0% 20,0% 25,0%
Blacks
Hispanics
Whites
Poverty’s Biggest Victims: Poverty’s Biggest Victims: GenderGender
Female headed families are greatly Female headed families are greatly overrepresented among those in povertyoverrepresented among those in poverty• Female householders without husbands had Female householders without husbands had
average annual income of $average annual income of $23,73223,732 in 1999 in 1999• Male householders without wives had Male householders without wives had
average annual income of average annual income of $37,396$37,396 in 1999 in 1999 This phenomenon has come to be called This phenomenon has come to be called
“the feminization of poverty”“the feminization of poverty”
How Do We Count the Poor?How Do We Count the Poor? The official “poverty index” was The official “poverty index” was
developed by the Social Security developed by the Social Security Administration in 1964Administration in 1964 It was based on earlier studies that found It was based on earlier studies that found
that families of 3 or more people typically that families of 3 or more people typically spent about 1/3 of their budget on foodspent about 1/3 of their budget on food
The poverty index is thus based on the The poverty index is thus based on the annual cost of a frugal but adequate diet x 3annual cost of a frugal but adequate diet x 3
The threshold of poverty will thus The threshold of poverty will thus depend on the number of individuals depend on the number of individuals living in a householdliving in a household
Threshold of Poverty, 1999Threshold of Poverty, 1999Size of HouseholdSize of Household Poverty ThresholdPoverty Threshold1 person (under 65)1 person (under 65)
1 person (over 65)1 person (over 65)
$8,501$8,501
$7,990$7,990
2 people (under 65)2 people (under 65)
2 people (over 65)2 people (over 65)
$11,214$11,214
$10,075$10,075
3 people3 people $13,290$13,290
4 people4 people $17,029$17,029
5 people5 people $20,127$20,127
6 people6 people $22,727$22,727
7 people7 people $25,912$25,912
8 people8 people $28,967$28,967
9 people9 people $34,417$34,417
Myth #1: Myth #1: People are poor because they are lazyPeople are poor because they are lazy• Fact:Fact: About half of the poor are not of working age; most of those About half of the poor are not of working age; most of those
of working age are either working or looking for workof working age are either working or looking for work Myth #2: Myth #2: Most poor people are African-American and most Most poor people are African-American and most
African-Americans are poorAfrican-Americans are poor• Fact:Fact: Most poor people are white; about 28% of African-Americans Most poor people are white; about 28% of African-Americans
are poorare poor Myth #3: Myth #3: Most of the poor are single mothers with childrenMost of the poor are single mothers with children
• Fact:Fact: Female-headed families with children represent about 44% of Female-headed families with children represent about 44% of the poorthe poor
Myth #4: Myth #4: Most people in poverty live in the inner cityMost people in poverty live in the inner city• Fact:Fact: Less than 22% of the poor live in central citiesLess than 22% of the poor live in central cities
Myth #5: Myth #5: Welfare programs are straining federal budgetsWelfare programs are straining federal budgets• Fact:Fact: Only about 14% of the federal budget went to welfare Only about 14% of the federal budget went to welfare
programs in 1996, compared to 43% that went to other social programs in 1996, compared to 43% that went to other social assistance programs such as social security and Medicareassistance programs such as social security and Medicare
Myths About the PoorMyths About the Poor
Consequences of Social Consequences of Social StratificationStratification