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CHEMISTRY OF MAJOR
COMPOUNDS IN THEBODY
CARBOHYDRATES
LIPIDS
PROTEINS
NUCLEIC ACIDS
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CARBOHYDRATES
ALDEHYDE OR KETONE DERIVATES OF POLYHYDRIC ALCOHOLS
4 CLASSES BASED ON THEIR SIZE
I. MONOSACCHARIDES
- SMALLEST UNIT OF CARBOHYDRATES- CANNOT BE HYDROLIZED INTO SIMPLER CARBOHYDRATES
- MONOSACCHARIDES MAY BE CLSSIFIED BASED ON THE
NUMBER
OF THEIR CARBON ATOMS:
- TRIOSE : GLYCERALDEHYDE
- TETROSES : ERYTHROSE - PENTOSES : RIBOSE
- HEXOSES : GLUCOSE, GALACTOSE, FRUCTOSE, MANNOSE
- HEPTOSES : SEDOHEPTULOSE
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- SUGARS EXHIBIT VARIOUS FORMS OF ISOMERISM
1. D AND L SUGARS - MONOSACCHARIDES ARE DESIGNATED D OR L,DEPENDING
ON THE CONFIGURATION OF THE ASYMETRIC CARBON
FARTHEST FROM THE CARBONYL GROUP
D ISOMER IF THE HYDROXYL GROUP IN THE RIGHT
SIDE,
L ISOMER IT THE HYDROXYL GROUP IN THE LEFTSIDE !
- MOST OF THE SUGARS IN LIVING ORGANISM BELONG TO
THE D SERIES
". PYRANOSE AND FURANOSE RING STRUCTURE
- HEXOSES, SUCH AS THE ALDOHEXOSE OR THE KETO-
HEXOSE FORM EITHER SIX-MEMBERED RING PYRANOSE!
OR FIVE-MEMBERED RING FURANOSE !
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#. ALPHA AND BETA ANOMERS
- IF THE SUGAR IS DEPICTED $ITH THE RING IN THE PLANE
OF THE PAPER, THE HYDROXYL GROUP COVALENTLY
ATTACHED TO THE ANOMERIC CARBON IS IN THE
ALPHA POSITION IF IT IS BELO$ THE PLANE OF THE RING,
BETA POSITION IF IT IS ABOVE THE PLANE OF THE RING
4. EPIMERS
- ISOMER DIFFERING AS A RESULT OF VARIATIONS IN THE %OH AND %H ON CARBON ATOMS
&. ALDOSE-KETOSE ISOMERISM
- ONE OF THE CARBON ATOM FORMS A CARBONYL GROUP
VIA A DOUBLE BOND $ITH OXYGEN
ALDOSE IF THE CARBONYL GROUP IS AN ALDEHYDE
OR KETOSE IF IT IS A KETONE GROUP
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THE STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE CAN BE REPRESENTED IN THREE
$AYS:STRAIGHT-CHAIN STRUCTURE, RING STRUCTURE, CYCLIC
STRUCTURE
HA$ORTH PROJECTION! AND THE CHAIR-BOAT FORM
II. DISACCHARIDES- CONTAINS " MONOSACCHARIDES JOINED BY AN O-GLYCOSIDIC
BOND
- EXAMPLES : MALTOSE GLUCOSE-GLUCOSE!
LACTOSE GLUCOSE-GALACTOSE!
SUCROSE GLUCOSE-FRUCTOSE!
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III. OLIGOSACCHARIDES
- CONTAINS # % 1' MONOSACCHARIDES - COMPONENTS OF GLYCOPROTEINS ANDGLYCOLIPIDS
IV. POLYSACCHARIDES
- CONTAINS MORE THAN 1' MONOSACCHARIDES,JOINED BY
GLYCOSIDIC BOND
- EXAMPLES : STARCH GLYCOGEN INULIN GLYCOSAMINOGLYCAN
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CLASSIFICATION:
I. SIMPLE LIPID:
- ESTERS OF FATTY ACIDS $ITH VARIOUS ALCOHOLS
II. COMPLEX LIPIDS:- ESTERS OF FATTY ACIDS CONTAINING GROUPS IN
ADDITION
TO AN ALCOHOL AND FATTY ACIDS
- EXAMPLES : FOSFOLIPID, GLYCOLIPID, LIPOPROTEIN
III.PRECURSOR AND DERIVED LIPID
- EXAMPLES : FATTY ACIDS, GLYCEROL, STEROIDS, KETONE
BODIES
LIPIDS
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FATTY ACIDS
- STRAIGHT ALIPHATIC CHAINS $ITH METHYL GROUP ATONE END OMEGA-CARBON! AND A CARBOXYL GROUP AT
THE OTHER END
- MOST FATTY ACIDS IN THE HUMAN HAVE AN EVEN NUMBEROF CARBON ATOMS USUALLY BET$EEN 1( % "'
- FATTY ACIDS MAY BE SATURATED OR UNSATURATED
- THE DOUBLE BONDS IN MOST NATURALLY OCCURINGFATTY ACIDS ARE IN THE CIS CONFIGURATION THE ACYL
CHAINS ARE ON THE SAME SIDE OF THE DOUBLE BONDS!)TRANS MEANS THAT THE ACYL CHAINS ARE ON OPPOSITE
SIDES OF THE DOUBLE BOND
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ACYLGLYCEROLS
- FATTY ACIDS REACT $ITH ALCOHOL HYDROXYL!
GROUPS TO FORM ESTERS ---- TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
PHOSPHOACYLGLYCEROLS
- PHOSPHOACYLGLYCEROLS CONTAIN FATTY ACIDSESTERFIED TOPOSITIONS 1 AND " OF GLYCEROL AND A PHOSPHORYLGROUP AT POSITION #
IF ONLY A PHOSPHATE GROUP IS ATTACH TO POSITION #,THE COMPOUND IS KNO$N AS PHOSPHATIDIC ACID
- COMPOUNDS DERIVED FROM PHOSPHATIDIC ACID THATCONTAIN SUBSTITUENTS ON THE PHOSPHATE GROUP AREKNO$N AS PHOSPHOLIPID PHOSPHOGLYCERIDES!.
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SPHINGOLIPIDS
- SPHINGOLIPIDS ARE DERIVATES OF CERAMIDE SYNTHESIZED
FROM SERINE , PALMITIC ACID! AND AN ADDITIONAL FATTY ACID- PHOSPHOCHOLINE IS ESTERIFIED TO CERAMIDE IN
SPHINGOMYELIN PHOSPHOLIPID!
- SUGARS ARE ATTACHED TO CERAMIDE IN CEREBROSIDES AND
GANGLIOSIDES
- SPHINGOLIPIDS ARE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF MYELIN AND OF
THE MEMBRANES OF BRAIN AND OTHER NERVOUS TISSUE
EICOSANOIDS
- EICOSANOIDS ARE PRODUCED BY MANY CELL IN THE BODY,
SYNTHESIZED FROM POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
CONTAINING "' CARBON ATOMS $ITH #, 4, OR & DOUBLE BONDS
- EXAMPLES : PROSTAGLANDINS, THROMBOXANS, LEUKOTRIENES
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STEROIDS
- THE STEROIDS ARE A GROUP OF COMPOUNDS THAT CONTAIN A
STRUCTURE KNO$N AS THE STEROID NUCLEUSCYCLOPENTANO
PERHYDRO PHENANTHRENE!
- CHOLESTEROL SYNTHESIZED IN ANIMALS BUT NOT IN PLANTS!
IS THE PARENT COMPOUND FROM $HICH OTHER STEROIDS ARE
PRODUCED IN HUMANS
- CHOLESTEROL IS CONVERTED TO BILE SALTS, THE
ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONE STEROID HORMONE! AND THE
SEX HORMONES
- THE #-HYDROXYL GROUP OF CHOLESTEROL CAN REACT $ITH
FATTY ACIDS, FORMING CHOLESTEROL ESTERS $HICH ARE LESS
SOLUBLE THAN FREE CHOLESTEROL AND THREFORE IS STOREDAS DROPLETS IN CELLS, AND ALSO ARE FOUND IN THE BLOOD
LIPOPROTEINS
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- THE BILE SALTS ARE AMPHIPATIC COMPOUNDS
CONTAIN BOTHHYDROPHOBIC AND HYDROPHILIC REGIONS, SERVING
TO EMULSIFY THE LIPIDS IN THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
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PROTEIN.
PROTEIN ARE SYNTHESIZED FROM AMINOACIDS THAT ARE JOINEDBY PEPTIDE BONDS.AMINO ACIDS ARE THE BUILDING BLOKS
OF PROTEIN MOLECULES.
ALL OF AMINO ACIDS FOUND IN THE BODY
PROTEIN ARE OF THE
L- ALPHA- AMINO ACIDS. EXCEPTGLYCINE!.
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FOUR DIFFERENT LEVELS OF PROTEINSTRUCTURE.
-PRIMARY STRUCTURE : THE LINEARSE*UENCE OF AMINO ACIDS THAT ARE LINKED TOGETHER BYPEPTIDE BONDS.
- SECONDARY STRUCTURE : REGIONS$ITHIN POLYPEPTIDE CHAINSCAN FORM REGULAR, RECURRING,LOCALIZED STRUCTURES THATRESULT FROM HYDROGEN BONDINGBET$EEN ATOMS OF THE PEPTIDE BONDS.
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- TERTIARY STRUCTURE : THE OVERALL
THREE-DIMENSIONAL CONFORMATION
OF PROTEIN. FACTORS THAT STABILIZED THE
TERTIARY STRUCTURE :
- NONCOVALENT INTERACTIONS BET$EEN
THE SIDE CHAIN OF AMINO ACIDSRESIDUES
- HYDROPHOBIC AND ELECTROSTATIC
INTERACTIONS AS $ELLAS HYDROGEN BONDS,
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COVALENT LINKAGES INVOLVING DISULFIDE
BOND FORMATION BET$EEN CYSTEINE
RESIDUES.
- VAN DER $AALS FORCES BET$EEN
THE ATOMS.
- *UATERNARY STRUCTURE : THE THREE-
DIMENSIONAL CONFORMATION OF AMULTISUBUNIT PROTEIN COMPOSED OF A
NUMBER OF POLYPEPTIDE CHAINS ORSUBUNITS! JOINED BY NONCOVALENT
INTERACTIONS
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NUCLEIC ACIDS.
- POLYMER OF NUCLEOTIDES. NUCLEOTIDES ARE COMPOSED OF :
- NITROGENOUS BASE " TYPES :
PURIN, PYRIMIDINES!
- SUGAR RIBOSE OR DEOXYRIBOSE!.
- PHOSPHATE.
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PHOSPHATE GROUPS ATTACHED TO
NUCLEOSIDES CONSIST OF
N-BASE AND SUGAR ) THE SUGAR ISJOINED TO THE BASE BY ANN-GLYCOSIDIC BOND ! BY AN ESTER
BOND TO THE SUGAR, USUALLY AT THE &+-CARBON !.
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- NUCLEOTIDES SERVE AS THE
MONOMERIC UNITS OF THE
NUCLEIC ACIDS, DNA AND RNA. BASE
PAIRING, $HICH INVOLVES
HYDROGEN BONDS, IS ESSENTIAL
FOR THE FUNCTION OF THE
NUCLEIC ACIDS.
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