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COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OFFRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDS
FOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATICELECTIONS IN AFRICA
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COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
Table of Contents2
Acronyms / Disclaimer
Acknowledgements / Foreword
Executive Summary
1. Introduction
2. Explaining the Different Standards in Africas Sub-regions
2.1. The African Unions Treaty Standards for Democratic Elections
2.1.1TheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoplesRights(1981) 2.1.2.TheAfricanCharteronDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernance(2012)
2.2 AU Non-Treaty Standards for Democratic Elections
2.3 Regional Frameworks 2.3.1TheEconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates 2.3.2.TheSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity 2.3.3.TheEastAfricanCommunity
3. Comparative Assessment of the Different Frameworks for DemocraticElections : the cases of SADC, EAC and ECOWAS 3.1.ElectionManagementBodies 3.2.PoliticalParties 3.3.IndependenceoftheMedia 3.4.CivilSociety
4. Election Observation : A Mechanism for StrengtheningDemocratization Processes in Africa
4.1. Election Observation : Strengths and Weaknesses in theImplementation of Standards Governing Democratic Elections
5. The Implementation of Electoral Standards in SADC,the EAC and ECOWAS : Success Stories
5.1 The Legal Framework 5.1.1OrganisingtheElectoralProcess-Independence oftheElectionManagementBodies 5.1.2.EfciencyandProfessionalismoftheEMB:Impact
ontheIntegrityofElectoralPreparations
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5.2. Examples of Good Practice : Positive African Experiences 5.2.1.MozambiquesSuccessStory:GeneralElectionsof2009
5.2.2.GhanasElectoralExperience:ResponsibleandVolunteer
ActorsforDemocraticElectoralProcesses
5.2.2.1.ThePoliticalPartiesCodeofConduct
5.2.2.2.TheInter-PartyAdvisoryCommittee(IPAC)
5.2.2.3.TheNationalPeaceCouncil
6. The Experiences of Training Centres in Promoting Good ElectoralPractice in Africa
7. Recommendations
7.1. Legal Frameworks
7.2. Civil Society
7.3. Election Management Bodies
7.4. The Electoral Process
7.5. Development Partners
7.6. GIZ
8. GIZ Contribution To Democratic Electoral Processes in Africa
8.1 African Union
8.2 East African Community
8.3 Economic Community of West African States
8.4 Southern African Development Community
9. Conclusion
Bibliography
Current Members of Elections Working Group
Brief - Sector Network Good Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa
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Acronyms
ACDEG :AfricanCharteronDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernanceACHPR :AfricanCharteronHumanandPeoplesRightsAGA :AfricanGovernanceArchitectureAU :AfricanUnionBRIDGE :BuildingResourcesInDemocracy,ElectionsandAssistanceCARLE :CommissionAdministrativedeRvisiondesListesElectoralesCENI :IndependentNationalElectoralCommission(RepublicofGuinea)CMESA :CommonMarketforEasternandSouthernAfrica
CNCA :NationalCouncilofAudiovisualCommunication(CtedIvoire)CODEO :CoalitionofDomesticElectionObserversCSO :CivilSocietyOrganizationDP :DemocraticParty(Kenya)EAC :EastAfricanCommunityEC :ElectoralCommissionECF :SADCElectoralCommissionsForumECONEC :ECOWASNetworkofElectoralCommissionsECOWAS :EconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates
EISA :ElectoralInstituteforSouthernAfricaEMB :ElectionManagementBodyEOM :ElectionObservationMissionESN :SADCElectoralSupportNetworkFPI :IvorianPopularFront(PoliticalPartyFoundedbyFormer
PresidentLaurentGbagbo)GIZ :GesellschaftfrInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GermanAgency
forInternationalCooperation)ICCPR :InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights
IDEA :InternationalInstituteforDemocracyandElectoralAssistanceIFES :InternationalFoundationforElectoralSystemsIGAD :Inter-GovernmentalAuthorityonDevelopmentIPAC :Inter-PartyAdvisoryCommittee(Ghana)KAIPTC :KoAnnanInternationalPeacekeepingTrainingCenterMATAP :MinistryinchargeofTerritorialAdministrationandPoliticalAffairs
(RepublicofGuinea)
Acronyms4
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Acronyms / Disclaimer 5
Acronyms
Disclaimer
MOU :MemorandumofUnderstandingNEC :NationalElectoralCommissionNEW :NationalElectionWatchPDCI :DemocraticPartyofCotedIvoirePDS :SenegaleseDemocraticPartyPEMMO :PrinciplesofElectionManagement,MonitoringandObservation.PUP :PartyforUnityandProgressRDR :RallyoftheRepublicans(CotedIvoire)
REC :RegionalEconomicCommunitiesRESOCIT :RseaudesObservateursCitoyens-CivilSocietyElectionObservation Mission(Senegal)RTI :IvorianStateTelevisionSADC :SouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunitySADCPF :SADCParliamentaryForumSADC-ESN :CivilSocietyElectoralSupervisionNetworkSEOM :SADCElectionObservationMissionUN :UnitedNations
UNDP :UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeZIF :ZentrumfrInternationaleFriedenseinstze
The authors opinion does not necessarily refect the opinion o theDeutsche Gesellschat r Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ).
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Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements6
WearemostgratefultoMr.IbrahimaAmadouNiangofInternationalIDEAforconductingthestudyandproducingthereport.WearealsothankfultoMr.ObiIhemewhoeditedtherstversionofthe
documentandMr.OumarDiabywhodesignedthenaldocument.
OfspecialmentionisthehugecontributionofMr.BriceBlehiri,aninternattheGIZSupportProjecttotheKoAnnanInternationalPeacekeeping
Training Centre (KAIPTC), who gave the document a nal brush andcoordinatedthedesignprocess.
Theinvaluablemoralandtechnicalsupportofthepresentandpastteamleaders(NanaOdoiandDavidNiiAddy)oftheGIZSupportProjecttotheKoAnnanInternationalPeacekeepingTrainingCentre(KAIPTC)cannotgounmentioned
MembersoftheElectionWorkingGroupwhocommittedsomeefforttothe
studyalsodeserveapatonback.
Last but not least, we are grateful to the leadership of the RegionalIntegrationClusterandindeedtheentireSNGGAfortheirusefulcontributionsandguidanceinnalisingthework.
Kenneth Abotsi
Chairperson, Election Working GroupSector Network Good Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa
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Foreword 7
Foreword
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
ThereintroductionofmultipartydemocracyinAfricaintheearly1990s,has brought in its wakeaworrying trend of election-related violentconict that threatens democracy, peace, stability and sustainable
humandevelopment.Thefactorsthatpropelsuchviolencearemultifaceted,rangingfromawedelectionstostructuralissuessuchaspoorgovernanceandexclusionarypoliticalpractices,tonamebutafew.
WhiletheAfricanUnionhascommittedmemberstatestodemocracy,ruleof
lawandconstitutionalgovernmentthroughthepassageofvariousinstrumentsatthecontinentallevel,itsregionalgroupingslikeECOWAS,SADCandEAChavealsoestablishedframeworksandguidelinestopromotedemocraticelectionsandpunishMemberStatesthatcontravenethem.Despite thesemeasures,however,recentelection-relateddisturbancesonthecontinenthaveraisedquestionsaboutweaknessesinherentintheirimplementation.
The ElectionWorkingGroup of the Regional Integration Clusterof the GIZSectorNetworkGoodGovernanceinSub-SaharanAfrica,commissionedthis
studytoassessthelinkagesbetweenthecontinentalandregionalnormativeframeworksfortheconductofdemocraticelectionsinAfrica.ThisstudyhasclearlyestablishedthatAfricadoesnotlackthelegalinstrumentstocarryoutsuccessiveelections.Rather,itlackstheadequateinstitutionalarrangementsandleadershipforeffectiveimplementation.
Itismyhopethattheoutcomesofthestudywillnotonlystrengthenthework of the African Union and its regional groupings but also enhanceadvisoryservicesofGIZtothevariousinstitutionsitsupports.Ialsoanticipatethat the recommendations of the studywill enhance synergies betweentheapproachesadoptedbytheAfricanUnionand its regionalblocsinthepromotionofcredibleelectoralprocessesinAfrica.
Philip Kusch
Chairperson, Sector Network Good Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa
June2013
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Executive Summary
This research paper focuses on the level of implementation of theacceptedstandardsfordemocraticelectionsinAfricaandprovidesanoverviewofthedifcultiesthathavehindereddifferentstakeholders
from fully playing their roles in implementing existing regulations toconsolidatedemocraticprocesses.ItalsodepictsthemainchallengesthatelectoralprocessesfaceinAfricaandprovidesrecommendationsonthewaystakeholders, states and organizations (regional and continental) shouldcooperateforbetterresults.
RecentcasesofillegalaccessionstopowersuchasinMaliandGuinea-Bissauin 2012, and the numerous elections-related disputes and violence haveledtoquestionsaboutthelevelofimplementationandtheeffectivenessofstandardsfordemocraticelectionsinAfrica.
AftersigninginternationalinstrumentsunderthebanneroftheUnitedNationstoguaranteehumanandpoliticalrightsprotection,Africancountrieshaveadoptedasetoflegalframeworksaimedatpromotingdemocraticprocesses
withinAfricanUnion(AU)MemberStates.Fromthestandpointofcreatinganenvironmentwhichallowsfreeandfairelectionstohappen,in2007AUMember States have signed the African Charter on Democracy, ElectionsandGovernance(ACDEG).OneoftheCharter'sobjectivesistolayouttheconditionsandstandardsfordemocraticelections,andtoprovideconcretesanctionmechanismstoreprimandviolationsbyMemberStates.Although,therequirednumberofraticationsfortheapplicationoftheACDEG(15)hasbeenreached,alotmoreneedstobeattainedintermsofimplementation.
Regional blocs such as the Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS) have led the way indesigning frameworks for the conduct ofdemocratic elections. Subsequently, the Southern African DevelopmentCommunity(SADC)andtheEastAfricanCommunity(EAC)havealsoadoptedlegalframeworkstoaddresschallengesspecictotheircountries.Inaddition,agreatdealofinvestmenthasbeenmadeintheareaofelectoralassistance,especially incapacity-building forstakeholders andcreatingorpromotingalternativeconictresolutionmechanisms.Forexample,theEAChascomeupwithaForumofElectoralCommissionswhichbringstogethermembersoftheelectoralcommissionsofthememberstatestoshareexperiences,bestpracticesandchallenges.
Executive Summary8
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Executive Summary 9
ToaddressthedeeplyrootedpoliticalcausesofconictsandinsecurityinWestAfrica,ECOWASMemberStatessignedin2001theProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance, an instrument that is legally bindingas itproduces treatystandards.ECOWASalsoplaysanimportantroleinelectoralassistanceastheProtocol on Democracy and Good Governance species the conditions underwhichaMemberStatecanrequestassistancefromECOWAS.
Inthesamevein,SADCcountries,throughtheElectoralInstituteforSouthernAfrica
(EISA)andtheSADCElectoralCommissionsForum(SADC-ECF),arepromotingthePrinciplesofElectionManagement,MonitoringandObservation(PEMMO)(2003)andthePrinciplesandGuidelinesGoverningDemocraticElections(2004).
However,despitetheexistenceoftheseframeworksthatpromotetherespectof the accepted standards for democratic elections, maintaining democraticprocessesremainsasignicantchallengeinAfrica.Consequently,implementingstandardsfordemocraticelectionsimpliestheneedforawidesharingoftheexpertiseintheeldofelectionsthroughoutthewholecontinent.
Suchanobjectiveisbeingprogressivelyreachedbyregionalorganizationswiththehelpofdevelopmentpartners,throughcapacity-buildingprogrammesandexperience sharing. The Forum of ECOWAS National Electoral Commissions(ECONEC),SADC-ECFandtheEACForumofNationalElectoralCommissionshaveplayedanimportantroleininformingelectionmanagementbodies(EMBs)ontheirmissionsandresponsibilitiesaswellasinsharingbestandworstelectoralexperiences.
Development Partners like GIZ have also made signicant contributions toenhancingelectoralprocessesinAfricabysupportingstakeholdersandfacilitatingprocesses,bothatthecontinentalandregionallevels.Moreover,trainingcentreslike theKoAnnan InternationalPeacekeepingTrainingCentre(KAIPTC),havecontributedtobuildingthecapacityofelectionobserverscapacitybyequippingthemwiththetoolstoeffectivelycarryouttheirmandate.AttheendtheauthorrecommendswaysinwhichGIZcanworkwiththeAfricanUnion,ECOWAS,SADCandtheEACtohelpstrengtheningelectoralprocessesinAfrica.
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From1960to1990,Africancountrieshadtraditionallyusedone-partysystemsinwhichpowerwascentralisedthroughtheadministrativeinstrumentsofthestatelikethepolice,army,schools,hospitals,aswellasgovernments'
absolute control over citizens fundamental human rights. These single-partystateshadthestrongbackingofthemilitaryandnancialsupportoftheirformercolonialpowers,especiallyintheformerFrenchcolonies.
However, although since 1990 almost all African countries adoptedmulti-party
systems,experiencehasshownthattherealityofpoliticsdiffersfromthedesireddemocratic state. In Cte dIvoire, the introduction of the concept of Ivoiritor Ivorian-ness hindered the participation ofAlassane Ouattara in the 1995elections.1Similarly,formerNigerianpresidentOlusegunObasanjotriedhardtoamendtheNigerianConstitutiontoallowhimtoserveathirdtermalthoughtheconstitutionrestrictedpresidentialtenuretotwoterms.
Modifying the law in this way in order to further personal interests over thepublic's,andotherillegalwaysofobtainingormaintainingpower,haveraisedthequestionofhowpracticalandeffectivetheframeworksandstandardsofdemocraticelectionsinAfricaare?Indeed,allAfricancountrieshaveunitedunderthebanneroftheAfricanUniontopromotedemocracy,governanceandpublicparticipationinaccordancewiththeUnitedNationsprinciples.TheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoplesRights(1981),inspiredbytheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(1948),advocatesforperiodicandgenuineelections2.Consequently,countriesthathaveratiedithaveagreedonthestandardsrelatingtodemocraticelectionsandhavecommittedthemselvestonationally promotingperiodicelections,genuine
elections,universalsuffrageandsecrecyofthevote.
Furthermore, to consolidate democratic electoral processes worldwide, the UNinitiated the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), whichpromotestherightofallcitizenstoparticipateinpublicaffairs.Inotherwords,itallowscitizenstochoosetheirrepresentativesortobechosenasrepresentativesthroughdemocraticelections.
1 The concept refers to the state of being a true Ivorian. This xenophobic term manifested itself at many levelsduring the Ivorian crisis and was seen by many observers as the root cause of the countrys political crises.
2 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Article 21.
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
1. Introduction
Introduction10
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Introduction 11
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
Article17 gives clear informationon the standards to follow for free and fairelections. It is necessary to understand that in the perspective of enhancingdemocraticpractice,goodgovernanceandpublicparticipation,theAUhasadoptedseveraltreatiesorconventionsthatpromotedemocraticelectionsinAfrica.
TheACDEGemanatesfromthelong-standingconcernofAUMemberStatesaboutunconstitutionalchangesofgovernmentwhichleadtopoliticalinstability,violenceandinsecurityinAfrica.TheCharterslegitimacyderivesfromtheAUConstitutiveAct-alsocalledtheLomDeclaration-thatwassignedin2000,committingMemberStates to participatory democracy, constitutionalism, and rule of law.3 Directlyaddressingtheissueofdemocraticelections,theACDEGdepictsthevariousthreatstodemocracyandconstitutionalorderandprovidespotentialsolutionstodeterorreversesuchactions.
Inthesamevein,ECOWASMemberStatesandotherregionalgroupshavedevelopedframeworkstopromotetherespectofthestandardsfordemocraticelectionsattheregionallevel,takingintoconsiderationtheirspecicelectoralexperiences.
Hence,totacklethedeeplyrootedpoliticalcausesofconictsandinsecurityinWestAfrica,in2001ECOWASMemberStatessignedaProtocolonDemocracyandGood Governancewhich created bindingsub-regional standards for conducting
To facilitate the implementation of a tradition of democratic changes ofgovernmentsinAfrica,AfricanUnionMemberStatesadoptedtheDeclarationofPrinciplesgoverning Democratic Elections inAfrica (2002) and the African
Charter onDemocracy, Elections and Governance (ACDEG 2007), whichmoreexplicitlyoutlinetheconditionsandstandardsfordemocraticelectionsinAfrica.Article3oftheACDEGsetstheconditionsfordemocraticelectionsasfollows:
ArepresentativegovernmentAclearseparationofpowersGenderEquality
PeriodicelectionsPluralismFairnessinmanagementofpublicaffairs
3 AU Constitutive Act (2000), Articles 3 and 4.
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democraticelections.AninterestingfeatureoftheProtocol laysinthe factthat itpromotesconstitutionalconvergenceprinciples.Theseinclude:
4 Protocol on Democracy, Elections and Good Governance (2001) , Article 15 Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community (1999), Article 6
Introduction12
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
Moreover,Article2oftheECOWASProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernancestatesthatnosubstantialmodicationshallbemadetotheelectorallawsinthe
lastsix (6)monthsbeforetheelections,exceptwiththeconsentof thepoliticalactors.Thisprovisiongoesfurtherthanarticle23oftheACDEGandhasamoreoperationalandpracticalimpact.InthecaseoftheSenegalesepresidentialelectionsofFebruary26th2010,theSenegaleseoppositioninvokedArticle2oftheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernancetocontestPresidentWadesdesiretopostponetheelections.
SimilartothearrangementthatbroughtWestAfricanstatesthroughtheEconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates(ECOWAS)in1978,SouthernAfricancountries
alsosignedtheTreatyestablishingtheSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity(SADC)in1992.
Morespecically,onthe subjectofelections, thepre-eminent instrument istheSADCPrinciplesandGuidelinesGoverningDemocraticElections(2004).Article6oftheTreatyestablishingtheEastAfricanCommunityreferstotheAUprinciplesongoodgovernanceingeneral.ThroughArticle6,EACMemberStatesconrmedtheiradherencetotheprinciplesofdemocracy,theruleoflawandthepromotionofhumanandpeoplesrightsinaccordancewiththeprovisionsoftheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoplesRights. 5
ItisimportanttoknowthatthelegalframeworksthatprotectelectoralstandardsarenotenoughtoconsolidatedemocraticprocessesinAfrica.Indeed,experiencehas shownthat theyhave tobeaccompaniedby instruments,mechanisms andguidelinesthatshowwhatmeasuresoughttobetakenforelectionstobeconductedfreelyandfairly.
Obtainingpowerthroughfree,fairandtransparentelections.Zerotoleranceforpowerobtainedormaintainedbyunconstitutionalmeans.Popularparticipationindecision-making4.
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A person with disability casting his ballot in Burkina Faso / Kenneth Abotsi
Introduction 13
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Introduction14
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
The Republic of BENIN BURKINA FASO The Republic of CABO VERDE The Republic ofCOTE DIVOIRE
The Republic of GAMBIA The Republic ofGHANA The Republic of GUNINEE The Republic of GUINEE BISSAU
The Republic of LIBERIA The Republic of MALI The Republic of NIGER The Federal Republic ofNIGERIA
The Republic of SENEGAL The Republic of SIERRA LEONE The Republic of TOGO
The figure above shows the current member states of the ECOWAS
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A female voter casting her ballot in Burkina Faso / Kenneth Abotsi
Introduction 15
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Introduction16
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
The Principles for Election Management, Monitoring and Evaluation (PEMMO),adoptedbytheSADCMemberStates,isaverygoodexamplethatclearlyoutlinesthe responsibilities and the features of all stakeholders for elections to be free
andfair.TheseguidelineshaveaspecicfocusontherolesexpectedoftheEMBs,politicalparties,civilsocietyorganizationsandthemedia.
Inadditiontothedifferentframeworksandguidelinesthataremeanttosupportdemocratic process in Africa, election observation missions are considerablyreliedupontoappraisethequalityofelectionsonthebasisoftheinternational,continental and regional standards for democratic elections. The importance ofelectionobservationmissionsdoesnotonly lie intheway theyassesselectoralprocesses,butalsointheircontributiontoproposingrecommendationsontheway
electoralprocessesshouldbeimproved,basedonfactsthatwerecollectedandontheexperiencesofothercountries.
Unfortunately, reported cases of recent political violence and unconstitutionalchangesingovernmentslikeZimbabwe,CtedIvoire,Mali,andGuineaBissauhaverevealed a limited implementation of the standards for democratic elections inAfrica,thoughinternationalandregionalframeworkshighlyprotectthem.
Itisthereforenecessarytoseekthefactorsthatlimittheeffectiveimplementationofthe standardsfordemocraticelections intheorganizationand the conductofelections atnational levels. The presence ofaneffectiveandwell-drafted legalframework, the independence and the professionalism of the EMB, the qualityoftheciviceducationprogrammes,thewilloftheincumbentgovernmenttoup-holdruleoflawandtheroleofinternationalactorswhoseinterestsmayover-ridenational interests. Equally important, isthe commitment ofpolitical parties to apeacefulelectoralprocessareveryimportantparametersthatoughttobelookedattondpracticalsolutionstothechallengesthatelectionsfaceinAfrica.
Fortunately,thesuccessofGhana,Mozambique,SenegalandKenyainorganizingdemocraticelectionshasprovidedgoodexamplesofeffectivestrategiesandtoolstopreventpotentialconictsandsettleelectoraldisputes.
ThecoreofthisstudywillpresentthestandardsandframeworksondemocraticelectioninAfrica,theirstrengthsandweaknesseswhenputinpracticefollowedbyconcreteexamplesofcaseswhereelectionsinAfricahavebeensuccessfultosupportourrecommendationsforqualitativeelectoralprocessesinAfrica.
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Voters checking their names at a Polling Centre in Togo / Kenneth Abotsi
Introduction 17
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Explaining the Different Standards in Africas Sub-regions18
It isnecessary to understandthe level atwhichstandards for democraticelections have been adopted as well as the type of instruments thatguaranteetheirrespect.Indeed,thevariouslevelsofstandardsderivefrom
universal,continentalandregionalinstruments.UniversalinstrumentsarethosethathavebeenadoptedwithintheUnitedNationswherealmostallstatesarerepresented.Consequently,fromtheseinstrumentsderiveavarietyofstandards
thathavealargesupportattheuniversallevel.However, continental and regional instruments are legal instruments thathave been proposed, compiled and adopted within continental (AU, EuropeanCouncil)orregionalorganizations(ECOWAS,EAC,SADC).Continentalandregionalinstrumentsallabidebytheuniversalinstrumentsandareameanstoenforcingandimplementingtheuniversalstandardsinspecicgeographicalcontexts.Duetotheirgeographicalproximity,somecountriesinsub-regionalAfricahavecreateddevelopment communities inwhichthey sharemeansand tools to corroborate
thecontinentaleffortfortheconsolidationoftheruleoflaw,democraticelectionsand participatorydecision-making processes. The Economic Community ofWestAfricanStates(ECOWAS),theSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity(SADC)andtheEasternAfricanCommunity(EAC)havealldevelopedframeworksthataimtofostertherespectfortheuniversalandregionalstandardsfordemocraticelections.Nonetheless, a challenge that ought to be acknowledged - although betterillustratedintherecommendationsectionofthisreport-isthattheseorganisationsarenotadequatelyintegrated.Inshort,ahealthiercooperationbetweenregionalorganisationsisneededfortheinterestofadequatedemocraticelections.
Anotherimportantdistinctionconcernsthedifferenttypesofstandards.Indeed,bothattheinternationalandregionallevel,standardsfordemocraticelectionsderive from two types that respectively have their specicities: the treatystandardsandthenon-treatystandards.
Treatystandards are standards thatare contained ina treaty. A treaty isaninternationalagreementbetweenstatesataninternationalorregional level,inawrittenform,andgovernedbyinternationallaw.AccordingtotheVienna
ConventionontheLawofTreaties(1969),whenastatehassignedatreaty,ithasvoluntarilyexpresseditswilltobeboundbythattreatyandmusttherefore,respectitsprovisions.
2. Explaining the Different
Standards in Africas Sub-regions
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Explaining the Different Standards in Africas Sub-regions 19
Onceastatehasratiedatreaty,itisobligedtorespectallthestandardsthatderive from it. However, ratication of a given treaty is not compulsory, but isdependentuponnationallawsandguidelinesforratication.Non-treatystandards
aresometimescalledsoftlawinstruments.Themainfactordistinguishingnon-treatystandards fromtreatystandardsisthat therst typeislegally bindingasopposedtothelatter.
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
AU member states
South Africa, Algeria, Angola,
Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso,Burundi, Cameroon,
Cabo Verde, Comoros,
Cte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt,
Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana,
Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Equatorial
Guinea, Haiti, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia,
Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali,
Mauritius, Mauritania, Mozambique,
Namibia, Niger, Nigeria,
Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic,
Central African Republic,
Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Republic of Congo, Rwanda,
Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal,
Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia,
Sudan, South Sudan, Swaziland,
Tanzania, Chad, Togo,
Tunisia, Uganda,
Zambia, Zimbabwe
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Explaining the Different Standards in Africas Sub-regions20
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
Adopted in 1981 and ratied by all 53 member states, the AfricanCharteronHuman and Peoples Rights (ACHPR) sets the standardsgoverningdemocraticelections.Article13(1)oftheCharterstatesthat
everycitizenshallhavetherighttoparticipatefreelyinthegovernmentof his country, either directly or through freely chosen representatives inaccordancewiththelawsprovisions.Article13(2)alsoassertseverycitizenshallhavetherightofequalaccesstothepublicserviceofhiscountry.Thisfundamentalarticleissimilartoarticle21oftheUnitedNationsUniversalDeclaration on Human Rights (1948) and article 25 of the InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(1966),whichafrmthesamerights.TherelevanceofArticle13oftheAfricanCharterisinthewayitpresentsthe
2.1.1. The African Charter on Human and PeoplesRights (1981)
The African Union was established on July 9th 2002 to replace theOrganizationofAfricanUnity(OAU).Almost10yearslater,sincethe16thOrdinaryAssemblyoftheAUonAfricanSharedValuestheDepartmentof
Political Affairs of the African UnionCommission (AUC) isgiven themandatetodevelopaPan-AfricanGovernanceArchitecture(AGA)toprovidetheprocessand mechanism of enhancing policy dialogue, convergence, coherence andharmonizationamongstAUOrgansonAfricanSharedValues.TherationaleforAGAisnottocreateanewinstitution,ratherstrengtheningandcoordinatingtheexistingnormsandinstitutionswithaformalmandateongovernanceandhumanrightsthroughaplatformandsecretariat.
As such the AGA is the overall political and institutional framework for thepromotion of democracy, governance and human rights in Africa. Thus, AGAencompassesallpolicypronouncementsandtreatiesadoptedbytheAUinregardtoupholdingdemocraticpractice,goodgovernanceandpublicparticipation.With
reference to elections these are the AfricanCharteronHuman and PeoplesRights,theAfricanCharterofDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernanceandtheOAU/AUDeclarationonPrinciplesGoverningDemocraticElectionsinAfrica.
2.1. The African Unions Treaty Standardsfor Democratic Elections
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Explaining the Different Standards in Africas Sub-regions 21
TheAfricanCharteronDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernance(ACDEG)recallsthecompulsorynatureofatreaty,which,byessence,becomesbindingwhensignedandratiedbyacountry.TheChartercameinto
force on15February 2012with the ratication by the requisite numberofmemberstates(15).Asatdate,17countrieshaveratiedtheCharter(Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroun, Chad, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau,Guinea, Lesotho,Mauritania, Nigeria,Niger, Rwanda, South Africa, SierraLeone,TogoandZambia)8All17raticationshavebeendepositedand41signatorieshavebeenobtained.
TheACDEGemanatesfromthelong-standingapprehensionofAUMemberStatesaboutunconstitutionalchangesofgovernment,leadingtopoliticalinstability,violenceandinsecurityinAfrica.TheCharter'slegitimacycomesfromtheAUConstitutiveAct,alsocalledtheLomDeclaration,whichwassigned in 2000 and commitsMember States toparticipatorydemocracy,constitutionalism,andtheruleoflaw9.
2.1.2. The African Charter on Democracy, Electionsand Governance (2012)
6 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), Article 257 European Commission Compendium of Election Standards, 2nd edition , Page 198 Election related disputes and political violence, strengthening the rule of the African Union in Preventing
and Resolving Conict. Report of the Panel of the Wise, International Peace Institute, July 2010, Page 349 AU Constitutive Act (2000), Articles 3 and 4
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
generalconditionsforconductingademocraticelection.ItisworthnotingthatthemajorfocusofArticle13oftheAfricanCharteristheprincipleofparticipation.Indeed,itgrantseverycitizentherighttoparticipatefreelyinthedecision-making
processesoftheircountryaccordingtotheprovisionsofthenationallaw.Therighttoparticipation,denedastherighttotakepartintheconductofpublicaffairs,chooseorbechosenasarepresentative6,ishighlyprotectedbytheAfricanCharter.AlthoughtheAUpromotesparticipationthroughthisCharter,thepursuitofthisinpractice isentirely dependentonnational laws7.ThismeansthatthelevelofprotectionoftherighttoparticipationisnotharmonizedintheAfricancommunity.TheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoplesRightsdoesnotaddressthematterofelectionsindepth,asthiswasnotitssolepurpose.ItisaregionalinstrumentthatevokestherightsprotectedbytheinternationalinstrumentsoftheUN.However,
inordertospecifythecontentofwhatademocraticelectionshouldlooklikeandharmonizethestandardsusedtoassessthequalityofelections,in2007theAfricanUnionadoptedtheAfricanCharteronDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernance.
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Explaining the Different Standards in Africa's Sub-regions22
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
Legislationthatallowsquickandthoroughsettlementofelectoraldisputes. Equitableandfreeaccesstomedia. Acodeofconductgoverningtheactivityofpoliticalpartiesprior,duringandaftertheelectiontoensurethattheyallrespectlegalprovisionsgoverningtheprocess(seetheDeclarationofOuagadougouinGuinea's2010presidentialelection).Thiscodemustbe,atalltimes,legallybinding.
TheobjectiveoftheAfricanCharteronDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernanceistopromoteadherencebyeachMemberStatetotheuniversalvaluesandprinciplesofdemocracy.TheACDEGurgesMemberStatestotakeawiderangeofmeasures
topromote democracywithin theAfricanUnion. Directlyaddressing the issueof democratic elections, the ACDEG outlines the various threats to democracyandconstitutionalorderandprovidespotentialsolutionstodeterorreversesuchactions.Article3presentsseveralpreconditionsforfosteringdemocraticelections.Indeed,modern democracies are characterized by representative governmentsdue to political pluralism,which leads different citizens into competing duringperiodicelections.Inordertoprotectthepoliticalrightsofthecitizens,statesmustensurethatthereisaneffectiveseparationofpowersandcreateanenvironmentinwhichthereisatransparentmanagementofpublicaffairs.
TheAfricanCharteronDemocracy,ElectionsandGovernancedoesnotonlygiveanoverviewoftheconditionsfordemocraticelection,italsodenesdemocraticelections and species the standards that are used to judge the quality of anelection.Tobedemocratic,electionsmustberegular,free,fairandtransparent.ThesestandardsarefurtherspeciedintheDeclarationonthePrinciplesGoverningDemocratic elections (see the AUs non-treaty standards, the Declaration ofPrinciplesGoverningDemocraticElections2002).
Indeed, the African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance goesbeyondthepoliticalcommitmentthatledtotheadoptionoftheDeclarationofPrinciplesGoverningDemocraticElections(2002).Itisabindingandoperationaltool stipulating the conditions that will allow the fostering of universal andregionalstandardsfordemocraticelections.Tothisend,countrieshavecommittedthemselvestoadopting:
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COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
10
African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance (2007), Article 1411 African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance (2007), Article 1412 Edward, R. McMahon, The African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance :A Positive Step On A LongPath, Open Society Institute, May 2007
Interventionbymercenariestoremovedemocratically-electedgovernments Thereplacementofdemocratically-electedgovernmentsbyarmedrebelsanddissidents Therefusalofanincumbenttosurrenderpowerafterafree,fairandregularelection.
Article 23also includesanadditional denition ofunconstitutional changes ofgovernment such as any amendment or revision of the Constitution or legalinstruments.Suchaprovisionhasinspiredtheadoptionofframeworksthatcanadequatelypromoteregular,freeandfairelections.
However, the ACDEG lacks clarity on some major points such as the sanctionson the perpetrators of illegal changesofgovernment.According to the Charter,when the AU Peace and Security Council has established that there has beenan unconstitutional change of government, the offending government will be
suspendedasanAUmember.ThereisthenthepossibilityoftheAUtoimposesanctionsonthatgovernmentandtheMemberStatesthatsupportsit.However,thetypesofsanctionsarenotspecied.TheMemberStateswilldecideonhowtofacechallengestodemocraticgovernanceaccordingtotheirpoliticalinterests.
Toenforceandpromotetheeffectivenessoftheprinciplesfordemocraticelections,the African Charter onDemocracy, Elections and Governance (ACDEG), hasmadeprovisionsforcaseswhereastatewouldviolatetheCharter.Internally,statesmust
putinplacelegalprovisionsthatdealwiththosewhoillegallyremovelegitimateandlegallyestablishedgovernments10.Continentally,statesmustcooperateincasesofunconstitutionalchangesofgovernment,inaccordancewiththelaw11.Article23iscriticalasitspeciesillegalmeansofaccessingormaintainingpowerconstituteanunconstitutionalchangeofgovernmentanddeneswhatismeantbyillegalmeans.12TheACDEGtakesintoaccounttheAfrica'sparticularitiesandArticle23includesmilitarycoups,denedas:
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COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
The Declaration on the Principles Governing Democratic Elections inAfricawasadoptedin2002bytheAfricanUnion,toaddressspecicallytherightsandobligationsofstakeholders,andaddressestheconditions
andstandardsforconductingdemocraticelections,asopposedtotheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoplesRights(1981),whichprotectshumanrightsingeneral.Moreover,itdrawstheattentionofAUMemberStatestothefactthatdemocraticelectionsareanimportantpartofconictprevention,management
andresolution.TheDeclarationonthePrinciplesGoverningDemocraticElectionshasbeenveryimportantandledtotheadoptionoftheACDEG,whichattemptstoconsolidateeffortstopromoteharmonizedstandardsfordemocraticelectionsinAfrica.AccordingtothisDeclaration,electionsmustbeconductedfreelyandfairly.Butwhatdofreeandfairelectionsimply?
Tobedemocratic,electionshavetobeconductedunderdemocraticconstitutionsandcomplywithsupportivelegalinstruments.Thiscanonlybeguaranteedbyaclearandeffectiveseparationofpowersthatensuresthejudiciary'sindependence,whichwillplayitsrolethroughouttheprocess,fromvoterregistrationtopublishingthenalresultsoftheelection.Moreover,someelectionssuchastheRepublicofGuineas2010presidentialelection,haveshownthatthequalityofelectoralinstitutionsgreatlyaffectsthecredibilityoftheprocess.TheEuropeanUnions(EU)ObservationMissionrecommendedthatEMBmembersandotheractorsmustbetrainedinordertofullyplaytheirroleinlegitimisingtheelection.TheDeclarationforesaw the need to build stakeholder capacity, specicallyunder the sectionPrinciples of Democratic Elections, where it is stipulated that the elections
shouldbeconductedbyimpartial,all-inclusivecompetentaccountableelectoralinstitutions staffed by well-trained personnel and equipped with adequatelogistics.SuchaneffortshallbesupportedbytheSecretariat(whatSecretariat?)throughaDemocraticandElectoralAssistanceUnit.
Nevertheless, though theDeclaration exhaustively addresses theprinciples andstandardsfordemocraticelections,itwasadeclarationofprinciple,-atypeofsoftlawinstrument-principlesonwhichtheMemberStatesagreeandpromotetogether in the community. However, unlike a treaty, which is governed by
internationallaw,thisDeclarationisnotcompulsory.YetitplayedaveryimportantroleinpromotingdemocraticelectionsinAfrica.ItrevealedthedevelopmentofnewwaysofenforcingandassessingthenatureofelectionsandinspiredtheACDEG.
2.2. AU Non-Treaty Standardsfor Democratic Elections
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13 Protocol on Democracy and Good Governance Supplementary to the Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for ConictPrevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping and Security (2001), Article 1
TheEconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates(ECOWAS)wasestablishedinMay1975topromotetrade,self-relianceandtopromotepoliticalcooperation.ArevisedTreatysignedin1993strengthensthewilloftheMemberStatesto
cooperateinthepoliticalsphere.Regardingdemocraticelections,thefundamentalinstrument is the Protocol relating to the Mechanism for Conict Prevention,Management,Resolution,PeacekeepingandSecurity(2001)andSupplementary
ProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance.Inaddition,in2008,theMemberStates adopted the ECOWAS Conict Prevention FrameworkMember State. Itspurpose is to achieve the objectives of Democracy and Political Governanceandtocreatebenchmarkstoassessprogressintheirpromotion.Toaddressthedeeply-rootedpoliticalcausesofconictandinsecurityinWestAfrica,in2001theECOWASMemberStatessignedaProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance,aninstrumentwithelementsoftreatystandards,asitisbinding.Article1containsalistofprinciplesthataredeclaredconstitutionalandaresharedbyallMemberStates.13
Thisarticleisveryimportant,asitclearlyshowsthattheintentionoftheMemberStatesistoproducerespectedpracticesofdemocracyintheregion.Statestendtoinvokethepre-eminenceoftheirnationallawwhentheydonotwanttoabidebyaprovisioncontainedinatreaty.Consequently,astatecanrelyonitsconstitutiontoadoptapositionthatisnotallowedbyanECOWAStreaty.Thus,declaringthatsomeprinciplesareconstitutionalandsharedbyallMemberStatesmeansthatontheonehand,allMemberStateswillincludethemintheirconstitutionandontheotherhand,theprincipleswillbeharmonized,operationalandimplemented
inallMemberStates.Thisleadstohavingaconsolidatedandcommonframeworkprotecting shared standards in a community that aims to reach constitutionalconvergence.SomeprinciplesreferredtoinArticle1are:
Theaccesstopowerthroughfree,fairandtransparentelectionsZerotoleranceforpowerobtainedormaintainedbyunconstitutionalmeansPopularparticipationindecision-making
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
2.3. Regional Frameworks
2.3.1. The Economic Community of West African States
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14 Protocol on Democracy and Good Governance Supplementary to the Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for ConictPrevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping and Security (2001), Article 1
15 Protocol on Democracy and Good Governance Supplementary to the Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for ConictPrevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping and Security (2001), Article 2
Topreventthemilitaryfrominterferinginpolitics,theProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernanceincludedthenecessityforthearmedforcestobeapoliticalandtobeunderthecommandofalegallyconstitutedpoliticalauthority.14Noserving
memberofthearmedforcesmayseektorunforelectivepoliticalpositions.SuchaprovisionisofacapitalinterestandshouldinspiretheAUanditsmemberstatessothatitwillbeaharmonizedconstitutionalprinciple.Asatoolpromotingtheclearseparationbetweenthecivilandthemilitaryandpreventingmilitarycoups,itshouldbereadaptedattheAUlevelandinthelegislationofthedifferentregionalorganisations.
AnotherinnovationoftheECOWASProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernanceisthelevelofprotectionassuredtooppositionparties.Indeed,Article1stipulates
thatthefreedomoftheoppositionshallbeguaranteed.DeclaringthisprincipleconstitutionalimpliesthatallMemberStatesmustrespectitandsuchaprovision,whenlinkedtotheWestAfricancontext,isanimportantstepinfosteringpoliticalpluralismandghtingtheoppressionoftheopposition.Furthermore,theECOWASframeworkgivesimpetustotheAfricanUnionseffortinpreventinganddeterringamendments of the electoral lawwithin a set time elections. Article 2 of theSupplementary Protocol onDemocracyandGoodGovernance (2001) states,nosubstantialmodicationshallbemadetotheelectorallawsinthelastsix(6)monthsbeforetheelections,exceptwiththeconsentofamajorityofpoliticalactors.15
It is a very positive step in implementing and enforcing the international andregional instruments that were all signed by ECOWAS states, guaranteeing theeffectiveness of the principles and standards governing democratic elections.ECOWAShasgonefurtherthantheAU,asthelatterdoesnotstateaspecictimeframeduringwhichnochangetotheelectorallawcanbemade.Itisapracticalexample of regional implementation of principles that are generally agreed oncontinentallyandinternationally.TheSenegaleseoppositionpartiesquotedthese
principlesduringthe2012pre-electionperiod,whentherulingpartyatthetime,thePartiDmocratiqueSngalais(PDS)attemptedtopostponethepresidentialelectionswithouttheconsentofpoliticalactors.
Explaining the Different Standards in Africa's Sub-regions26
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Ecowas protocol on democracy and good governance provides clear election guidelines
Explaining the Different Standards in Africa's Sub-regions 27
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Explaining the Different Standards in Africa's Sub-regions28
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Theinformationcollectedbythefact-ndingmissionandtheeldworkaccomplishedbyanyexploratorymissionwillfacilitatethepreparationoftheElectionObservationMission(EOM).
Collectingalltextsgoverningtheelectionsconcerned; Gatheringallinformationontheconditionsunderwhichtheelectionsshall beconducted; Collectingallpertinentinformationrelatingtothecontestingcandidates orpoliticalparties; Meetingallcandidates,politicalpartyleaders,governmentauthorities andothercompetentbodies.
However,inspeciccasespoliticalcircumstancesmakechangestotheelectorallawsnecessarywiththeconsentofamajorityofpoliticalactors.16Onceagain,inSenegal,theoppositionandtherulingpartyagreedtochangethedayoftheparliamentary
electionwhichwas supposed to takeplace inmid-June, given that the politicalcalendarwouldnot givethemenoughtimetoprepare.Politicaldialogue isalsogiveneminenceintheECOWASProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance,whichhasbeenveryproductiveinGhanain(2000,2004,and200, inSenegal in2012andintheRepublicofGuineain2010.Article3 isaclearillustrationofECOWASwilltousepoliticaldialoguetoreinforcethecondenceofallthestakeholdersintheelectoralprocess.Itstates,thebodiesresponsiblefororganizingtheelectionsshallbeindependentorneutralandshallhavethecondenceofallthepoliticalactors.Whennecessary,appropriatenationalconsultationsshallbeorganizedto
determinethenatureandstructureofthebodies.TheelectoralprocessstalledintheRepublicofGuineamainlybecausetheoppositioncontestedthecompositionoftheIndependentNationalElectoralCommission(CENI).
ECOWASplaysadecisiveroleinelectoralassistanceinWestAfrica.ItsmandateinthatsphereisclearlyorganizedbytheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance.Articles 12 to 18explain the conditions underwhichelectoralassistance shall beprovidedbyECOWAStoaMemberState.AttherequestofanyMemberState,ECOWASmayprovideassistanceintheconductofanyelection.ThedecisionistakenbytheExecutiveSecretary.AselectionsinaMemberStateapproach,theExecutiveSecretarymaydispatchafact-ndingmissionwhichcanbefollowedbyanexploratorymission.Theexploratorymissionaimsat:
16 ECOWAS Protocol on Democracy and Good Governance, Article 2
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Explaining the Different Standards in Africa's Sub-regions 29
17 SADC Treaty (1992), Articles 3 and 4.18 Page 3, EISA, Elections in the SADC Region , EISA, South Africa, 2006, page 3
The Southern African Development Community (SADC) also aims topromote and consolidate sub-regional development and democracy. ItworkstogetherwithkeycomprisesofkeyinstitutionssuchastheSADC
ElectoralCommissionsForum(ECF),theElectoralInstituteofSouthernAfrica(EISA),theSADCElectoralSupportNetwork(ESN)andtheSADCParliamentaryForum (SADCPF). Together, these institutions are committed to support thegrowthanddeepeningofdemocracyinthesub-region.Amongotheractivities,electionobserversaresenttomonitorandobserveelectionsintheregionand
trainingisprovidedforelectionpersonnel.
However, despite the numerous frameworks protecting the standards fordemocraticelectionsintheSADCregion,theintegrityoftheelectoralprocessesintheregionremainsamajorissue.TheSADCTreatyof1992enumeratesgeneralprinciplesaboutdemocracyandtheprotectionofhumanrights.Countrieshaveengagedtopromotetheprinciplesofdemocracy,ruleoflawandtofostertheconsolidationofdemocratic,effectiveandlegitimate institutions.17However,experienceintheregionandbeyondhasshownthatdeepeningdemocracy
entailsmorethanholdingperiodicelectionsandcreatinginstitutionsinchargeof organising and controlling them. It also involves developing a generallyaccepted set of values that ensures fair electoral practices predicated onrepresentation, accountability, inclusiveness, transparency, gender equality,toleranceand respect for diversity,whichSADC countries have agreed on.18
Moreover,guaranteesforpeacefulandsecureelectoralprocessesintheregionhavetobedevelopedtopreventallformsofthreatsthatcouldunderminetheintegrityoftheprocess.
2.3.2. The Southern African Development Community
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
TheElectionObservationMissionshallarriveintheMemberStateconcernedatleastforty-eight hoursbefore the elections and shall remain in the country during theelections.TheMissionshallremaininthecountrythroughouttheelectionperiodand
until theelectionresultsareannounced.TheMissionshallalsosubmita reporttotheExecutiveSecretarywhowillforwardit,togetherwithhisownobservations,ifnecessary,totheMediationandSecurityCouncil.Thelattermakesrecommendationstothecountryconcernedand/ortoallMemberStates,andtakesmeasureswherenecessary,asstatedinarticle18oftheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance.
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The gure above illustrates assumed free and fair electionsthat have taken place in the two African regions.
SADC Year ECOWAS Year
South Africa
Mozambique
Malawi
Mauritius
Tanzania
Zambia
April 22, 2009
October 28, 2009
May 19, 2009
September 19, 2008
October 31, 2010
September 20, 2011
Senegal
Ghana
Sierra Leone
Niger
Guinea
March 25, 2012
December 10, 2012
November 17, 2012
March 12, 2011
June 27, 2010
EACPartnerStateshavecommitteditselftothepromotionofdemocraticelectionsbyadoptingacomprehensiveProtocolonGoodGovernance.19WhileArticle2(a)states the promotion and adherence to the universal values and principles ofdemocracy and respect for human rights as one of its core objectives,Article4 (1) specically mentions the holding of regular, transparent, free and fairelectionsas itsforemostprincipleguidingtheapplicationandimplementationoftheProtocol.
Explaining the Different Standards in Africa's Sub-regions30
19 Draft of EAC principles for election observation, monitoring and evaluation
Inthatperspective,theSADCcountriessignedtheProtocolonPolitics,DefenceandSecurityCooperationin2001.OneoftheProtocolsobjectiveswastoencouragethedevelopmentofdemocraticinstitutionsandpracticeswithintheterritoriesofMember
StatesandstimulatetheobservanceofuniversalhumanrightsasprovidedforintheUN,AUandotherSADCinstruments.Regardingelections,thepre-eminentinstrumentistheSADCPrinciplesandGuidelinesGoverningDemocraticElections(2004).
2.3.3. The East African Community
LikeECOWASandSADC,countriesinEastAfricasharingcommonvaluesand
customscreatedtheEastAfricanCommunity(EAC)in1999.Withalong-termgoalofcreatinganEastAfricanFederation,EACMemberStatescooperatetoformstrongpoliticallinks.TheTreatyfortheEstablishmentoftheEastAfricanCommunitywassignedin1999andenteredintoforceinJuly2000,followingitsratication,andwasinauguratedinJanuary2001.
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31Explaining the Different Standards in Africa's Sub-regions
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
Article7ofthesameProtocolwhichisdevotedtoDemocracyandDemocratizationProcessesenjoins PartnerStates to commit themselves to the principle that theexerciseofpublicauthorityemanatesfromthewillofthepeoplethroughregular,
transparent,freeandfairelections.ItalsocallsonPartnerStatestoundertaketocooperateinpromotingdemocracy,itsprocessesandinculcatethecultureofdemocracyandgoodgovernanceacrossallsectorsofsociety.Moreimportantly,Article7(3)mentionsthatthepromotionandinstitutionalizationofdemocracy,democratizationprocessesandgoodgovernanceshallbeby:
a)Establishing Independent Electoral Management Bodies that are adequately fundedfromtheConsolidatedFund;b)Developingatransparentmechanismfortheappointmentofmembersofthe
ElectoralManagementBodiesbasedonmerit,genderequityandprofessionalism;c) Developing policies and mechanisms for harmonized regional benchmarks forconductingregular,transparent,free,fairandcredibleelections in linewith internationallyacceptedstandards;d)Developing mechanisms to facilitate democratic elections, political transitions andpeacefultransferofpowerwithinaspeciedtimeframebetweenconclusion ofelectionsandassumptionofofce;e)Establishingaregionalmechanismforelectionobservationandevaluation;f) Ensuringthatelectionpetitionsaredisposedofwithineighteenmonths,during whichperiodthecourtsoflawshallbefacilitatedtohandlethepetitions;g)Enactinglawsthatregulatetheestablishmentofpoliticalpartiesthatarenational incharacter,internallydemocratic,withclearideologies,visionsandmissions, devoidofallformsofdiscrimination;h)Developingpoliciesandlawsthatregulatefundingofpoliticalparties;i) EnsuringthatCandidatesforelectivepostsaredemocraticallyelectedthrough regular,transparent,freeandfairelections,andareaccountabletothepeople;j) Institutingmechanismsforensuringparliamentaryaccountabilityandtransparency
k)Establishing measures to ensure political parties are accountable through leadershipcodes,atalllevelsofgovernance;l) Enactingorreviewinglawsandpoliciesthatfacilitaterepresentationofwomen, youth, persons with disabilities and other special interest groups to contest electoralandpoliticalleadershippositions;m)Adheringtotheprincipleofdecentralizationanddevolutionofpoweratalllevels inthegovernancesystems;n)Establishingandstrengtheninglocalcommitteesofgoodgovernance;o)Creating anenablingenvironmentfor the exerciseof freedomofexpression,
associationandassembly,afreeandindependentmedia, robust civilsociety andastrongprivatesector;
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20 Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community (1999), Article 621 Principles for Election Observation, Monitoring and Evaluation
Explaining the Different Standards in Africa's Sub-regions32
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p) StrengtheningtheEastAfricanCommunityForumof ElectoralCommissions to exchangeexpertiseandshareelectoralbestpractices;q)Promotingciviceducationforthepopulationtoenhancedemocraticpractices
andprocesses;andr) Enacting electoral laws that allow citizens including those living abroad to participateinelectoralprocesses.
East AfricanStatesare alsocommitted topromotingdemocraticelections throughArticle6oftheTreatyestablishingtheEastAfricanCommunity.ThisArticlereferstotheAUPrinciplesonGoodGovernanceingeneralandcommitsEACMemberStatestotheprinciplesofdemocracy,theruleoflawandthepromotionofhumanandpeoplesrightsinaccordancewiththeprovisionsoftheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoples
Rights.20
Subsequenttothesecommitments,theEAChasdeployedelectionobservationmissionseitherindependentlyorjointlywiththeCommonMarketforEasternandSouthernAfrica(COMESA)andtheIntergovernmentalAuthorityonDevelopment(IGAD)withthe longtermobjectiveofstrengtheningelectoralanddemocraticprocessesin theregion.ReportsofEOmissionsareconsideredbytheCouncilandfollow-upsaremadetomemberstatesconductingelectionstoimplementtherecommendations.
TheEACCouncilhasalsoestablishedtheEACForumofNationalElectoralCommissionswiththemainobjectiveofenhancingharmonizationofdemocratizationprocessesandshareperspectives,challengesandbestpracticesintheconductoffree,fairandcredibleelectionsintheEACregion.Italsohastheaimoffacilitatingpeerlearningandinformationexchangewhileentrenchingthecultureofdemocracyintheregion.Apolicyframeworkdetailingthemandate,scopeandroleofEACElectoralCommissionsForum,its institutionalframeworkandstructureandthetriterelationshipbetweentheForum,theEACandtheNationalElectoralCommissionshasalsobeenputinplace.
The EAC has also adopted its Principles for Election Observation, Monitoring andEvaluation.21 The principles give clear guidelines on the structure, methodology,timeframesandreportingbackbytheEACElectionObserverMissions.Theyalsoprovideguidelinesforelectionobservationandthecodeofconductforelectionobserversandprovideaprovideasystematizedframeworkfororganizinganddeployingdifferentformsofobservermissionsandoutlinestheprinciples,scopeandmethodologyfortheEACElectionObserverMissions.
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Polling ofcials sealing a ballot box at a polling station in Cape Verde / Kenneth Abotsi
33
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COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FRAMEWORKS AND STANDARDSFOR THE CONDUCT OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN AFRICA
Comparative Assessment of the Different Frameworks for Democratic Elections : the casesof SADC, EAC and ECOWAS
3.1. Election Management Bodies
TherecentcasesofCtedIvoireandtheRepublicofGuineahaverevealedthe limited independence of Election Management Bodies in Africa.Indeed, unclear mandates and inadequate resources are a common
featureoftheEMBsthroughoutthewholeAfricancontinent.Moreover,the
non-transparentmanner inwhich EMBmembers are recruited has a verybadimpactonthelegitimacyoftheelectoralprocess.Consequently,ECOWASMemberStates,throughtheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance,promotes the neutrality and the independence of the EMB, which needsthe condence of political actors.22 Unlike the ECOWAS framework, whichonly generally states the features of an independent EMB, SADC and theEACgofarther,givingpracticalguidelinestofostertheemergenceandtheconsolidationofindependentEMBsintheirpoliticalregions.
22 ECOWAS Protocol on Democracy and Good Governance, Article 4
A
frican countries have agreed on and committed to promoting,through legal frameworks, standards for democratic elections asgenerally accepted principles of political governance. Such efforts
havebeen reiterated inAfricasdifferentdevelopmentcommunitiessuchastheECOWAS,SADCorEAC,whichhaveadoptedseveral treatyor non-treatyinstruments.However,experiencehasshownthatelectoralstandardshavetobeaccompaniedbyinstruments,mechanismsandguidelinesthataimatshowingwhatmeasuresoughttobetakenforelectionstobefreeandfair.ThePrinciplesforElectionManagement,MonitoringandEvaluation(PEMMO),adoptedbySADCMemberStates,isaverygoodexampleshowingtheresponsibilitiesofallstakeholdersforelectionstobefreeandfair.
3. Comparative Assessment
of the Different Frameworksfor Democratic Elections : thecases of SADC, EAC and ECOWAS
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3.2. Political Parties
Theconceptofdemocracyistightlylinkedtotheperiodicityoftheelections
andthecitizensrighttoparticipate,inotherwords,tovoteortobevotedfor.Inmoderndemocracies,especiallyintheWest,participationof
politicalpartieshasbeenseenasawaytopromotetheparticipationofcitizensinthepoliticallifebyperiodicallydelegating,theirsovereigntytothepoliticalpartieswhocompeteforit.Unfortunately,multi-partydemocraciesarestilllackinginsomepartsofthecontinentwhereasinotherparts,thoughithasformallybeenadopted, thehegemonyofthe rulingpartyundermines thelegitimacyofpoliticalcompetition.IntheSADCregion,despitetheeffortsthathavebeenmadetopromotedemocraticelectoralprocesses,somecountries
likeAngolaorSwazilandhavestillnotexperiencedmulti-partydemocracy.
23 http://www.eisa.org.za/EISA/publications/pemmo.htm
Indeed,thePEMMO,adoptedin2003,addressesthequestionsoftheEMBstructureandrecruitmentofitsmembers.ItwasadoptedwiththecollaborationofmorethanonehundredelectoralstakeholdersfromSADC.Theseparticipantscamefromall
fourteenSADCcountriesandrepresentedEMBsandleadingcivilsocietyorganizations(CSOs)forwhomelectionobservationisacoreactivity.23Thisparticipatorydocumentprovidesguidelinestopromotetheindependenceofelectoralcommissions.Theseguidelinesare:
The EAC Member States, by working on a Draft on EAC Principles for ElectionObservation,Monitoring and Evaluation, are following the path of SADC, whichadoptedthePEMMO.ThedraftonthePrinciplesforElectionObservation,MonitoringandEvaluationissimilartothePEMMOinsofarastheysharethesameprovisions
onthequestionsoftheEMBsstructureandrecruitmentofitsmembers.Article123oftheEACdocumentevengoesfurther,stipulatingthattherecruitmentoftheEMBmembersmustbedoneonagendersensitivebasis.
Appointingindependentpeopleknownwithinthesocietyfortheirintegrity EMBsmustbepermanentorganswithpermanentmemberstoensure theindependenceandthecontinuityoftheEMB ThebudgethastobedecidedintheNationalAssemblyorParliamentrather thaninaministry EMBsmustbeaccountabletotheNationalAssembly
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24 Political parties in Africa, Challenges for Sustained multi-party Democracy, Stockholm, International IDEA, 2007,Page 72 to 76
TheseprovisionsofthePEMMOcanbefoundintheEACDraftonthePrinciplesforElectionObservation,MonitoringandEvaluation.TheprovisionsontheregistrationofpoliticalpartiesaresimilarforEACandSADC.Topromotetheparticipationofwomen,SADCsprovisionsaremoredevelopedastheyprovidethatbeforecontestinganelection,politicalpartiesarerequiredtoensureequalgenderrepresentationandatleast30%ofcandidatesarewomen,inlinewiththeSADCDeclarationonGenderandDevelopment.Consequently, statesarebound to respect genderbalance in elections,which isanunconditionalcriterionforfreeelections.However,theEACMemberStateshavebeeninnovativeinaddressingtheissueofmarginalizedgroups.Itisaveryimportantstepinpromotingdemocraticprocesses,aselectionsmustbeinclusiveofallcitizens.TheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernanceadoptedbyECOWASMemberStates,doesnotexpresslydealwiththequestionofpoliticalpartyregistration.However,itcontainsgeneralprovisionsontherightsofthepoliticalpartiesandtheirfreedomtocarryout
theiractivitiesfreely.OneimportantprovisionoftheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernanceisthatitguaranteesthefreedomoftheopposition.SuchaprovisionoughttobeentrenchedinthewholeAfricanCommunityandmadeaconstitutionalprinciplethatishighlyprotectedatthenationallevel.Unfortunately,beyondthetoolsthatareadoptedtoprotectandpromotethefreedomofthepoliticalparties,liesthequestionofastateswilltoabidebythem.Thepre-electoralperiodinSenegalwasverytenseasduringthecampaign,therulingpartyusedthepoliceforcestointimidateandreprimandtheoppositionanditsleaders.Thankstotheeffortsofcivilsocietyinpreventingelectoralviolence,alongwiththemediationofECOWASandtheAfricanUnion,Senegalwasable
toconductanelectionthatwas,accordingtoalltheEOMs,free,fairandtransparent.
InZimbabwe,althoughprogresswasmadeinthe1980s,thecountryregressedinthe1990s,andbecameadefactoone-partysystem.Anotherchallengetomulti-partydemocracy inAfrica is the emergence of the dominant party syndrome
whichentrenchesthehegemonyoftherulingparty,asinSouthAfricaNamibia,andothercountries.24Consequently,toopenuppoliticalcompetitionintheSADCregion,thePEMMOurgesMemberStatestoadoptframeworksthatguaranteetherightofpoliticalpartiestoregisterforelections.Inthatregard,thecountriesmustcreateconditionswhere:
Partieshaveaspecictimetoregister Thequalicationsanddisqualicationsforregistrationareclearlyspelledout
Criteriaforregistrationareunambiguousandincludeappealmechanisms Politicalpartiesarerequiredtosignanelectoralcodeofconductupon registration
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25 International Crisis Group, Cote divoire : Scuriser le processus lectoral, Rapport n158, 5 Mai 201026 In Senegal, during the 2012 Presidential Election, several journalists have been victims of physical intimidations
and attacks from the police forces while they were reporting.
3.3. Independence of the Media
The independenceof themedia is a considerable challengewhen it comes toelectoralprocesses,giventheunequaltreatmentofcandidatesandpoliticalparties.InCtedIvoire,thequestionofthemedia'spartisanshipwasraisedduringthe2010presidentialelection.TheoppositiondeploredtheactivesupportthattheIvorianStateTelevision(RTI)wasgivingtotherulingpartybybroadcastingprogrammesinfavorofPresidentGbagbo,andtheRTI'spartisanshiphadbeenraisedlongbeforethen.Indeed,theLinasMarcoussisAgreementsignedinJanuary2003urgedthegovernmentinchargeofnationalreconciliationtoensuretheneutralityandthe
impartialityofthepublicservice.25
Thequestionoftheimpartialityofthemediaisdeeperasthepressfacesphysicalintimidation,26despitetheexistenceofregulatorybodiesforthemedia.Article1oftheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernancestatesthatthefreedomofthepressshallbeguaranteedforallECOWASMemberStates.Indeed,beingawareofthecrucialroleexpectedofanindependentpressintheconductoffreeandfairelections,MemberStateshaveagreedontheobligationtoguaranteethisfreedom.ThelattershallbemadeaconstitutionalprincipleinalltheECOWAScountries,givingitvalueandpreventingtheprobabilityofastateinvokinganationallawtoviolatetheECOWASprovision.
However, EACand SADC guidelines givemore indicationson theway statesshould contribute to respecting the freedomof the press. The Principles onElection Monitoring, Management and Observation (PEMMO) provides thatConstitutionsshallguaranteethefreedomofthepress.SuchaprovisionissimilartoArticle1oftheECOWASProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance,astheybothadvocatefortheinclusionofthatguaranteeinnationalconstitutions.Sucheffortsaremeanttotackletheissueofthemonopolyofthepublicorstatemediaby the ruling partyaswellas thefact that thestatemedia is rarely
accountable to the public. Consequently, the PEMMO, aswell as EACs DraftPrinciplesforElectionObservation,advocateinfavourof:
Anindependentmediacommission Subjectingthemediascoverageofelectionstoacodeofconduct,designed topromotefairreporting.
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Inaddition,toemphasizetheindependenceofthemedia,theAfricanUnionoughttopromote the adoptionof legislation strictly forbidding, ingeneraland in thespeciccontextofelections:
Politicalpolarizationofthemedia. Mediapromotionofethnicityandpower. Governmentorpoliticalpartiesoverusingthelawsforbiddingsectarianism, sedition,defamation. Thepreventionofcivilsocietyfromparticipateinmediamonitoringasin Ugandain2006,Nigeriain2007andSenegal201,2wherecivilsocietygroups focusedonthemonitoringoftheworkofthemedia.
3.4. Civil Society
Often pictured as the core supporters of civic education, civil societygroupshaveoverthepastyears,takenupmorecentralrolesinelectoralprocesses by organizing EOMs and by designing programmemes that
aremeanttopreventandmanageelectoralviolence.IntheSADCregion,thePEMMO,whichisafundamentalinstrumentforensuringfreeandfairelections,wasadoptedwiththecontributionofcivilsocietyorganizations.IntheECOWASregion,civilsocietyisalsoplayingaverycriticalroleinfosteringdemocraticelections. The Coalition of Domestic Election Observers (CODEO) in Ghana,NationalElectionWatch(NEW)inSierraLeoneandtheRseaudesObservateursCitoyens(RESOCIT)inSenegal,inadditiontotheworkofcivilsocietygroupsintheRepublicofGuinea,areexamplesofsuccessfulinitiativesofthecivilsocietyinpromotingfreeandfairelections.Unfortunately,thereareseveralchallenges
underminingtheactionofcivilsocietyorganizations.Theseinclude:
Inadequatecivicandvotereducationprogrammes,bothinterms offrequencyandcontent Over-relianceofcivilsocietyactivitiesondonorfunding Limitedaccessofruralvoterstocivicandvotereducationprogrammes. AfundamentaldifferencebetweentheECOWASprovisions(Article8 oftheProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance)andthePEMMO
isthatthelatteradvocatesforEMBstohavevoterseducationprogrammes whileECOWASreliesoncivilsocietytopromoteciviceducation.
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EMBsshouldhavebudgetstoimplementconsistentandqualitativecivic
andvoterseducationprogrammes Thestatesshould,intheirbudget,provideabudgetforciviceducation programmemes Regionalfundingshouldbeplannedandawardedtocivilsociety organizationstopromotecivicandvotereducation,especiallyforwomen andpeoplelivinginruralareas. AninnovationoftheEastAfricanCommunityliesintheimportanceitgives totheeducationofpeoplelivingwithdisabilities.TheEACsframeworkfor electionsdrawsspecialattentiontotheproblemsfacedbypeopleliving
withdisabilities.
ThePEMMOandtheEACDraftPrinciplesprovidethat:
A key civil societyin the ECOWAS region
The West Africa Civil SocietyInstitute(WACSI)remainsanactivecivil institution that promotes the
capacities of civil society groupsin the ECOWAS region. WACSI wascreatedbytheOpenSocietyInitiativeforWestAfrica(OSIWA)in2005.
The West Africa Civil Society Institute
The gure above illustrates examples of key regional civil society groups
Strengthen capacities of civilsociety groups in Southern Africa
Established in 2005, The SouthernAfrica Trust (SAT) provides supporttovariouscivil societyorganisationsin the southern region of Africa.It also plays an important role infosteringdemocraticprinciplesintheregionthrough institutional capacitybuilding.
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Voters checking their names at a Polling Centre in Togo / Kenneth Abotsi
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Election Observation : A Mechanism for Strengthening Democratization Processes in Africa
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Election Observation : A Mechanism for Strengthening Democratization Processes in Africa
4. Election Observation :
A Mechanism for StrengtheningDemocratization Processes in Africa
Electionobservationconsistsofgatheringinformationontheorganizationandtheconductofanelectionandassessingthequalityoftheelectionbasedontheinformationcollected.
With the numerouscases inwhichelections have led to political disputes orviolence, the African Union, through its Electoral Assistance Unit, endeavoursto promote the respectofthe standardsfor democratic elections inAfrica. Inline with this, regional organizations such as ECOWAS, SADC and EAC, havecontinuously deployed election observationmissions that evaluate theextenttowhichelectoral standards, guaranteedwithin AUs general framework, arerespected during elections in their Member States. Fortunately, the differentEOMsdeployedbyregionalorganizationsallrefertotheAUsframeworkwhenitcomestothestandardsusedtoassessthequalityofanelection.Thoughelection
observationmissionsusethesamestandards,theyhavecriticaldifferencesinthewaytheyarestructuredandhaveapositiveimpactontheeffectivenessofelections.Notonlydoelectionobservationmissionsassessthelegitimacyofanelection, theyalsoactasdeterrenttoelectoralfraudandrigging.Despite theexistenceofstandardsondemocraticelections,thewaytheyarerespectedorimplementedcandifferfromacountrytoanother.
4.1. Election Observation : Strengths andWeaknesses in the Implementation ofStandards Governing Democratic Elections
The role of election observation does not only lay in reporting theirregularities ofanelectoral process.Electionobservation isaway todepict the bestand theworstelectoralpractices and henceproposes
recommendations to improve electoral processes,based on collected facts
and other countries experiences. Case studies capturing experiences fromSADC,EACandECOWASwillbecitedtoelaborate.
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A polling station in Sierra Leone / Kenneth Abotsi
The Implementation of Electoral Standards in SADC, the EAC and ECOWAS : Success Stories42
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43The Implementation of Electoral Standards in SADC, the EAC and ECOWAS : Success Stories
5. The Implementation of
Electoral Standards in SADC, theEAC and ECOWAS : Success Stories
DespitethechallengesAfricancountriesfacewithholdingregular,freeandfairdemocraticelections,theregionalorganizationsSADC,theEACandECOWAShaveallhadsuccesses,theelementsofwhichareoutlined
below.
5.1. The Legal Framework
Itisnotenoughfornationstoadoptinternationalinstrumentspromotingtherespectofthestandardsondemocraticelections.Theymustshowcommitmenttotheseprinciplesbycapturingandcustomisingtheprinciplesespousedin
theseinternationalinstrumentsthroughelaboratenationalelectorallawsaswellasputtinginplacecredibleandresponsibleelectoraladministrations,trusted,and
respectedandaccompaniedbyallstakeholders.
WithinECOWAS,experiencehasshownthattheambiguityofthelegalframeworkhas, unfortunately, intensied electoral disputes,which happened during theRepublic ofGuineas2010presidential election. Indeed, threeversions of theelectoralcodewerepromulgatedintheintervaloffourmonths.Thisambiguityoftheelectorallawgeneratedpre-electoraldisputesbetweenthedifferentparties,astheydidnotagreeontheversionofthecodethatwasapplicable.Duringtherstroundoftheelection,thenalversionoftheelectoralcodehadnotyet
beenpromulgated.Consequently,arstroundofelectionstookplacewithoutaconsensual,guidingandbindingelectoralcode.Thenalversionoftheelectoralcodewaspromulgatedbetweentheannouncementandpublicationoftherstroundofresultsandthestartofthesecondround.Thisprovidedanewchallengeforaweakelectoraladministration.Someprovisionsoftheelectoralcodehadalimitinpracticethoughtheyrespectedthestandardsondemocraticelectionsastheywerecontrarytosomeofthedecisionsthatweretakenbytheelectoraladministrationandthatalreadyorganizedtheelectoralprocess.InSADC,standardsfordemocraticelectionsstillneedtobeenforced,assomeimportantcomponentsofademocraticprocesssuchastheindependenceofEMBsandmediaimpartialityneedtobeimproved.
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Ambiguity of electorallaws and processes mustbe reduced while mediaindependence must be
ensured.
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45The Implementation of Electoral Standards in SADC, the EAC and ECOWAS : Success Stories
Apre-eminentfeatureofacountryselectoraladministrationistheEMB.TheEMBorganizes,conductsandsupervisestheelectoralprocessfromthe pre-election period to the post-election phase. From registering
votersorpolitical parties, the countingorthepublishing results, the EMB ispresentatallstagesoftheelectoralprocess.Insomecountries,theEMBissaidtobeautonomous,suchasinSenegalandinothers,itissaidtobeindependent,asinGhanaandtheRepublicofGuinea.Consequently,awell-organizedandcoordinatedelectiondependsonthequalityoftheEMB.SomeofthefeaturesfundamentalfortheEMBtohavethetrustofthevariousstakeholdersinvolvedintheelectoralprocessarethattheEMBandkeyelectionofcialsmustbefreefromgovernmentcontrolandthattheprocessmustbeconductedindependently,impartiallyandtransparentlybytheEMB.
Although African countries have signed the ACDEG and other regionalinstruments,electionsinthesub-regionshaveshownlimitedimplementation
andrespectofthestandardsfordemocraticelections.IntheSADCregion,theTanzanianGeneralElectionsof2010haveunveiledthepracticallimitsofthestandards related to the independence of the EMB27. Indeed, the NationalElectionCommissionwasperceivedasbiasedinfavouroftherulingparty.ThesourceofsuchacontroversywasinTanzaniasconstitutionitself.AccordingtotheConstitution,thePresidenthastherighttoappointgovernmentofcials.Consequently, the interpretation that was given by the opposition to thisprovisionisthatthemembersoftheNationalElectoralCommission(NEC)areaccountabletothePresident,eventhoughtheyhavesecurityoftenure.This
does not respect the guidelines contained in the PEMMO document whichadvisesthatthemembersoftheEMBbechosenfromamongstindependentpersonalitieswhoseimpartialityisknowninthecountry.
Moreover,theEMBmembersoughttobe,accordingtothePEMMO,accountableto theNational Assembly and not to the President, as the political partiescontestingfortheTanzanian2010generalelectionalleged.ItmustbenotedthatthischallengeisnotlimitedtoSADCalone.ECOWASstatesarealsofacingthequestionoftheEMBsindependence.
5.1.1. Organising the Electoral Process -Independence of the Election Management Bodies
27 SADC Election Observation Mission to Tanzania, General elections (2010), Preliminary Report.
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Electoral Commission ought to exercise its full independence
Electo
ral
Commiss
ion
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TheTheindependenceoftheEMBhasanimpactonthecredibilityofthewholeelectoralprocess,aswasillustratedbythecaseoftheRepublicofGuinea.Additionally,thelevelofprofessionalismandthe
efciencyoftheprocesswillplayanimportantroleintheorganizationofelectionsthatrespectthestandardsondemocraticelections.
The SADC Election Observation Mission (SEOM) to Tanzania during the2010generalelectionsnotedthattheindividualsinchargeofconductingandsupervisingtheelectoralprocesswerenotadequatelytrained.Their
lackofprofessionalismandinadequatetrainingjeopardizedtheprocess,especiallyinthedistributionofelectoralmaterials.Thepreliminaryreportof the SEOMdeplored the insufcient distribution of ballot papers andthedistributionofinaccurateballotpapersinsomeconstituencies.ThiscompromisedtheimplementationoftherighttoparticipationguaranteedbytheAfricanUnionthroughtheACHPRandtheACDEGandjeopardizedtheregularityof theelectoralprocess.IntheECOWASsub-region,therecentPresidentialElectionintheRepublicofGuineaisasignicantexampleoftheconsequencesofanEMBthatlackscredibility.Initsreportonthe2010
presidentialelection,theMinistryinchargeofTerritorialAdministration
5.1.2. Efciency and Professionalism of the EMB :Impact on the Integrity of Electoral Preparations
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IntheRepublicofGuineaslastpresidentialelectionin2010,theIndependentNationalElectoralCommission(CENI)wasvehementlycriticizedfornotactingindependentlyand transparently. Although the law granted both nancial and administrativeindependenceoftheEMB,inpracticetheywereaccusedoftakingdirectivesfrom
therulingjunta.Thisengenderedmistrustandmarredtheelectoralprocess.Indeed,themajorissuewasnotthestructureoftheEMBbuttherecruitmentofitsmembers.OverthetwentyvemembersoftheCENI,politicalpartiesappointedtwenty.AlongwiththequestionofthepolarizationoftheEMB,anotherproblemwasthefactthattwentyoftheEMBmembershadbeenappointedbeforethepoliticaltransition,whenLansanaContwaspresident.ThepoliticalpartiesconsideredthatthemembersofContsparty,thePartyforUnityandProgress(PUP),wereover-representedintheEMB.TheperceptionofEMBspartisanshipwasevenmorepronouncedandcriticized
whenmembersofthePUPjoinedCellouDaleinDiallo,thecandidatedefeatedbythepresident,AlphaCond,inthesecondroundofelections.
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28 ECOWAS Handbook on Election Observation.29 For more information on this election, report to EUs EOM report (Guinea 2010)30 The CARLE (Commission Administrative de Rvision des ListeElectorales) was in charge of the registrations
and the updates on the voters lists.31 www.idea.int/elections/bridge_course.cfm
and PoliticalAffairs (MATAP) noted that insome constituencies, the voters listwasdifferentfromthevotersregister.Thisaffectedtheintegrityoftheelectoralpreparations,whichisacriticaltransparencycriterionforobservers.28
ThelackofprofessionalismandthenumerousirregularitiesthatwerenoticedintheorganizationofthepollsbytheCENIledtheSupremeCourttocancel900,000votesduringtherstroundoftheelection.29Thechallengeofadministeringandprofessionallyconductinganefcientprocesscouldbelookedatfromabroaderperspective.MajorchallengesofthepresidentialelectionintheRepublicofGuineainadditiontothedeciencyoftheEMBwere:
Alackofrigourandseriousnessintheselectionofthemembersofthe commissioninchargeoftheregistrationsandtheupdatesonthevoterslists, theCommissionAdministrativedeRvisiondesListeElectorales(CARLE)30. Ineffectiveanddecientcapacityoftheelectoraladministrators,whocouldnot effectivelyconducttheprocess. Alackofskilled,well-trainedresourcepersonswhowereawareoftheprocess intheremoteareas. Inadequateandweaktrainingofthepollingstationofcers. Inadequateandbadchoicesintherecruitmentofthetrainers.
TheAfricanUnionrecentlyorganizedaBuildingResourcesInDemocracy,ElectionsandAssistance(BRIDGE)programmemefortheheadsofelectoralcommissionsinAfricatobuildtheirelectionmanagementcapacity.ThegoaloftheBRIDGEprogrammeistopromoteandsupportdemocracyandgoodgovernancethroughmulti-stakeholderlearning, dialogue and networking.31 Such training should be promoted by theAfricanUnionandregionalgroupstocontinentallydevelopcompetitive,awareand
well-preparedelectoraladministrationsthatwillenforcethestandardsofdemocraticelections.Badelectoraladministrationleadsinevitablytoabadelectoralprocess.
The standards for democratic elections are agreeduponbothat the internationallevelthroughtheUNandregionallythroughtheAUandsub-regionalorganizations.TheprinciplesandguidelinesforfreeandfairelectionshavebeendevelopedwithinthewholeAfrican community through treaties or non-treaty instruments such as
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theACDEG,ACHPR,thePEMMO,theProtocolonDemocracyandGoodGovernance,andsoon.However,themainissuethatAfricansocietiesarefacingistheeffectiveimplementationofthestandardsondemocraticelectionsatthenationallevel.The
natureandtherelationshipsbetweenthevariousstakeholderswillhaveaninuentialimpactonthequalityoftheelectoralprocess.
Politicalpartiesandcivilsocietyhaveanindubitableroletoplayinthesuccessoftheoverallprocess.InTanzania's2010generalelections,politicalpartiesaskedtheNationalElectoralCommissiontonancethedeploymentoftheiragen