Construction details of a piggery
A piggery meant for rearing pigs on a permanent basis should be strong and
durable. Certain constructional details specific to piggery are important.
Floor
The snout of a pig is said to be harder than a crowbar. It can dig up even the
hardest surfaces and create pot holes. Therefore, the floor of the piggery should
be hard, unbreakable and rough. Materials such as reinforced concrete, stone
slabs or hard cement tiles fixed with cement are suitable materials for
constructing the floor of the piggery. A concrete floor laid on a hard and thick
foundation with rough surface is the best. The floor should have proper slope
from all sides towards the drainage.
Feeders and waterers
Pigs’ saliva is very corrosive and the feeders and waterers get easily pitted and
holed. Under such situation hygienic feeding is impossible. To avoid this
problem care should be taken while constructing the feeders and waterers.
Reinforced concrete with a mixture of 1: 1.5: 3 cement, sand and stone chips
respectively are the best material for a permanent feeders. This is topped with a
thick coating of cement which is given a smooth and fine finish. There should be
a separate drainage facility from each feeder and waterer to the outside. The
corners of the feeders and waterers should be round and smooth. Stone, wood,
brick and cement are other types of materials that can be used for the
construction of feeders and waterers.
Walls
The walls of a permanent piggery may be made of brick or stone with cement
and should be of nine inch thickness. The walls should be plastered and coated
with fine cement up to a height of 4 -5 ft. The corners and the place where the
walls join the floor should be made smooth and round. The walls should be 4-5
ft high from the floor. The rest of the wall up to the roof can be open.
Roof
The roof which can be conical or flat should be sufficiently high (about l0-12ft)
to have enough air circulation. It can be supported by pillars raised on walls
with a minimum height of 8 -10ft from the floor. The roof should be all weather
proof and material should not make the housing too hot or too cold inside. In
hot/warmer areas the roof should be raised high to provide enough ventilation
in the pig house.
Doors
The doors should be strong and durable. Any material may be used for the door
but the best material is iron. Metal sheets fixed on an iron frame are excellent.
The door should be fixed close to the floor so that pigs do not lift it up by
putting the snout under it. The width of the door should be at least 3 -4 ft.
Wallowing tank
In hot areas it is desirable to provide a wallowing tank in each room or on the
open space of combination system. On an average, a tank of 8 x 6 x 1 ft is
sufficient. The size may be increased depending on the number of pigs. The
gradient should gradually decrease by one 2ft deep on one side of the tank to
four inches on the other side. An underground drainage should be provided.
Feeding passage
The feeders can be constructed in a row on one side of the feeding space of
each room. The rooms of the piggery should be constructed in such a way that
the feeders come in one line. A feeding passage of about 3- 4 ft is convenient
for moving around. Openings made on the half wall towards each feeder make it
convenient for feeding, and these should be considered during construction.
Alternatively a wire or iron frame provides a good convenient wall.
Cleaning passage
A cleaning passage on the opposite side of each room is very necessary. The
door of each room opens to the cleaning passage. One should be able to enter
each room, remove dung and other wastes, wash and sweep, clean and drain
out into the main drainage from each room. The same passage can be used to
transfer pigs from one room to another for breeding, littering, weaning, etc.
Drainages
The drainages from each room and the main drainage should be constructed
with sufficient slope (generally 1: 100). The surface of these drainages should
be smooth so that cleaning becomes easy.
Sewage tank
In a very big piggery, a large quantity of sewage may be drained. Under such
situation, it is highly advisable to have a separate collection tank for sewage
collection.
Compost pits
Two compost pits are required side by side. They can be built with brick or
stone, no plastering is required on the sides or on the floor at the bottom. If
bricks are used, a coating of thick cement solution is recommended to preserve
the brick from weathering. The pits can be underground or built on the surface.
Room arrangement
The three sections, namely eating space, resting space and dunging area can be
arranged in the following order.
The three sections are made together under the roof (indoor system).
Resting place under roof and eating and dunging space in the open air
(combination system in less rainfall areas).
Resting place and eating place under the roof and dunging in the open air
(combination system in more than average rainfall area).
Partitions: (a) no partitions between sections, (b) partition between sections,
(c) partition separates dunging space from the other two, and (d) partition
separates resting space from the other two.
Surroundings
The surroundings of the piggery should be maintained clean and free of bushes.
There should be facilities for proper drainages from the surroundings of the
piggery. Clean and dry surroundings reduce the occurrence of diseases and
parasites.
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Components of a Piggery
Resting place
Pigs prefer to rest most of the time hence the need for a good resting place.
The resting place should be dry, clean and provide protection from cold, heat
and rain.
There are many recommendations regarding resting space requirement. A
single fully grown pig has varying length between five to six feet from snout to
the root of the tail. Consequently the minimum requirement for the pig will be
7-8 feet on both sides. However, the requirement of resting place for one pig
while resting is only about 5 X 2 ft space. This makes it possible for one to keep
three to four pigs in the space actually required for one full grown pig. However,
the actual size of the resting place should be in consonance with .the feeding
and exercising space.
Feeding space
Feeding space includes the space for feed as well as for watering. Every growing
or grown up pig requires a separate feeder, although water can be common.
The size of each feeder on the inner side should be 12" X 12" X 6" length, width
and height, respectively. The height of the feeder may be reduced by one or
two inches for smaller pigs. The size of the waterer is the same as for the
feeder. Several feeders and waterers can be constructed together in a line with
4"-6" thick partitions. The number of partition will be one less than the total
number of feeders and waterers. On the basis of these, we can calculate the
total feeding and watering length' required for any number of pigs one wants to
keep in, one room. This is further clarified by following example.
To keep 6 growers, six feeders and one waterer are required (total seven
troughs with 6 partitions). If the thickness of the partition is maintained at 4",
we require 9ft (7 + 4" x 6) feeding space, whereas if thickness kept is 6" then
we require 10ft feeding space. The second side of the feeding area will require
at least 6ft space for the pig to stand and eat comfortably. The feeding area
should be dry, clean and easily cleanable.
Dunging and exercising space
This area should be the same as the feeding area in the indoor system. But in
the combination system it could be at least double the space of resting area.
Drainage
There should be facilities for proper drainage from the resting, eating and
dunging space into a common drain.
Waste disposal space
The surrounding of the piggery should be kept clean therefore it is necessary to
have proper waste disposal place. Two rectangular pits or boxes of 10' x 8' x 6'
will be sufficient for about 50-75 grown up pigs. The dung and other wastes are
dumped into one pit at a time. When one is filled, start filling the other. By the
time the second is full, the contents of the first pit will be fully decomposed and
can be used as manure. Any waste except polythene papers, metal, glasses,
stones and hard wooden pieces, can be placed in these pits. The decomposition
takes place within 5 to 6 months time. Hence the size of pits should be such
that it should take about 6 months to fill.
Feed store
A full grown or growing pig requires about 2 kg of feed per day. Based on this,
the requirement of feed can be estimated per day for all the pigs. If feed is not
purchased on a monthly basis the store should be sufficiently big enough to
store at least four months feed.
Recording facilities
Various records on feeding, breeding, production, etc, should be maintained
even in a small piggery if one wants to run it economically. In a small piggery,
recording facilities would mean few recording registers and a small shelf to keep
them safely. In a commercial pig farm, it may mean even a computerized
record keeping room and other facilities including staff.
Space for equipments and tools
Proper equipments and implements are required for cleaning, watering,
preparing feed, feeding, disinfecting, slaughtering, etc. They should be
maintained in a proper and convenient condition for use. The size of this place
will vary with the size of piggery.
Space for first aid and medicines
All piggeries should have essential medicines and first aid facilities. In small
piggery, a small shelf with essential items will be sufficient, whereas in a big
commercial piggery a full fledged infirmary or hospital with staff may be
required.
Butchering and weighing space
If pigs are sold as pork, there should be a place to slaughter them with
minimum efforts and without disturbing other pigs in the piggery. Weighing of
pigs is done periodically to maintain the growth record. The slaughter area
should be kept clean and dry.
Office facilities
In commercial and large farms, proper office facilities are required for carrying
out various kinds of transactions. In a small piggery, office facilities can be
combined with storage, recording equipments, tools and medical items.
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Reproduction and lactation in pigs
For a commercial pig enterprise animals that produce fast and mature quickly
are required so that the farm’s productive capacity can be maximized.
Understanding the pig’s reproduction and lactation hold the key to increased
productivity. One primary goal in pig farming is to induce early puberty. This is
because early maturity in gilts will mean early reproduction hence less feed
spent on reproduction.
In order to be able to control reproduction the pig farmer must understand the
factors that affect it.
Puberty in gilts
Puberty is the onset of estrus and ovulation with continued regular estrus cycle
and is affected by the following:
Age, liveweight and growth rate
These factors are interrelated. However they are not indicators of maturity
because a gilt of say 40kg can show signs of estrus while another of the same
weight may not. Growth rate is the best indicator among the three because it
shows the activities of the pituitary.
Nutrition
Lysine and methionine supplements seem to induce puberty
Breed
Certain breeds of pigs attain puberty earlier than others e.g. landrace attains
puberty earlier than most breeds.
Heterosis
Hybrid vigor reduces the age at puberty. Crossbreeds attain puberty earlier than
purebreds.
Sire dam puberty age difference
Polland china x Duroc less 11 days
Duroc x Yorkshire less 36 days
Photoperiod
The length of day influences the onset of puberty such that long days tend to
induce puberty.
Crowding
Crowding induces puberty probably because of interaction and production of
hormones.
Boar contact
Gilts kept close to boars will attain puberty early. Optimum exposure period is
150 to 170 days of age. If exposed at an early age of 120 days they tend to get
used to the boar and will not reach puberty early. If over 200 days in age there
will be no effect.
The Estrus cycle
The pig will cycle on average after every 21 days but this varies between 18
and 24 days.
Signs of estrus
Mounting on other females but will not tolerate being mounted. This is very
early signs
Swollen vulva
Discharge from the vulva - this may not be very pronounced
Stands to riding test
Signs may last 3 to 4 days but gilts will allow mating only for 2 to 3 days.
Ovulation
This occurs in late estrus usually the second day after the onset of estrus. The
ova released will remain fertile for 24 hours therefore conception can optimally
occur if mating or artificial insemination is done in late estrus. The highest
conception rate will be achieved if insemination is done 6 – 10 hours before
ovulation.
Depending on the ovulation rate, litter size varies from 7 to 16 piglets.
Factors affecting ovulation rate
Estrus number
Whether the pig is cycling for the first, second or third time etc. The number of
ova released increase with each cycle. The number of ova released at a single
estrus gradually increases through the first three cycles. Litter size represents
only about 70% of the number of ova released.
Breeds of pigs
Chinese breeds are very prolific with litter size going as high as 30. Yorkshire
and Landrace are also prolific. Hampshire and Duroc are not.
Energy intake
High energy intake tends to increase ovulation rate (2 weeks prior to breeding)
Temperature
High temperature from 330C and above will reduce ovulation rate. Low
temperatures do not have any effect.
Artificial control of estrus
This can be done by parenteral gonadotrophin administration after weaning.
This involves injecting the sow with Pregnant Mare Serum Gonadotrophin
(PMSG) at weaning or anytime after and following it 60 to 70 hours with Human
Chorionic Gonadotrophin (HCG). The sow will cycle in less than 3 days.
Conception rate
This is the percentage of mating that result in the development of viable fetus.
A rate of 70% is acceptable for gilts and sows in the first service. It is difficult to
attain 100% conception rate due to factors like cystic follicles, improper estrus
timing, boar or female infertility and other anomalies.
Litter size in relation to prenatal death
Litter size refers to the number of piglets born to a sow. The size of a litter will
depend on:
The number of ova produced
Percent fertilization
The number of prenatal death and stillbirths
Usually prenatal death accounts for 40% and increases with gestation period,
the possible reasons for prenatal being:
Excess secretion of estrogen
Uterine crowding
High plane of nutrition after conception especially the first 3 weeks
Natural mating versus Artificial Insemination (AI)
Natural service is the most common system of mating for pig farmers in Kenya.
It is an efficient way of mating but the cost of a boar can be quite high. Where
AI is practiced fresh semen is used because of the poor keeping quality of boar
semen. Currently with the use of extenders the semen can be kept fertile for 3
to 5 days. Whereas bull semen can be frozen at -960C for life, boar semen
cannot be frozen. Bull semen can be extended using citrate and phosphate
extenders but these extenders are toxic to boar semen. However it is possible
to use fresh semen for 4 to 5 days. Semen can be collected twice a week per
boar.
Lactation
Milk production in the sow is a necessary process for the survival of the young
piglets. Milk yield and composition of the sow can be estimated by weighing of
piglets before and after suckling. Sometimes it becomes necessary to inject
oxytocin in order to induce milk letdown.
Peak milk production is attained in the 5 – 6 weeks. By 9 or 10 weeks daily
production is negligible. Average milk production is about 5 to 8kg per day over
a period of 8 weeks.
Milk production depends on nutrition, body size and breed.
Milk from sows is characteristically deficient in iron and copper and however
much iron is provided it does not pass through the milk.
Post natal development
The new born piglet is rather immature and therefore certain changes must
occur to make it well acquainted to the environment. Piglets are born when they
weigh 1.1 to 1.4kg on the average. Usually the birth weight of the piglet will
determine its survival chances. The lower the birth weight the higher the
mortality rate. Litter size also affect mortality rate indirectly. A large litter size
tends to have high mortality rate due to low birth weights.
New born piglets have very low liver glucose levels and at the same time the fat
content of the whole piglet is below 1% therefore there is no energy stored in
the piglet. The piglet must therefore suckle immediately in order to get energy.
If it does not suckle the blood glucose drops dramatically in the first 48 hours.
Because of this such piglets will undergo hypoglycemic comma leading to death.
Digestive development
During the first 24 hours the digestive tract is permeable to intact protein.
Following the intake of colostrum the ability to absorb such proteins is lost.
When the new born piglet is allowed to suckle immediately after birth it will
acquire passive immunity due to the immunoglobulin content of colostrum.
Colostrum has certain antibodies and this will be present in the cells of the
young piglet at least 6 hours after suckling.
Active immunity in young piglets start after 3 weeks but production of
antibodies is minimal up to 5 weeks of age.
The newborn piglet will readily absorb glucose but the utilization of sucrose and
polysaccharides are not as sufficient. Another carbohydrate that is readily
utilized is lactose. The older pigs will utilize lactose very poorly because they
have lower lactase secretion.
Complex carbohydrates like cellulose cannot be digested well by pigs. This is
because the pigs do not have the ability to secret cellulose and has very little
micro-flora in the true stomach. However certain microbes which have the
ability to degrade cellulose are present in the pig in the large intestine and
caecum. This microbes release volatile fatty acids which are absorbed in the
large intestine for energy metabolism.
Pigs of all ages have the ability to secrete large amounts of pancreatic lipase
therefore fat absorption is very efficient in the pig.
At birth intact protein will be absorbed, but following the absorption of alpha
globulins the gut closes and intact proteins will not be absorbed anymore.
Following gut closure dietary proteins must be hydrolyzed before absorption.
The efficiency of protein absorption depends on the source of protein. E.g. milk
protein is absorbed at a higher rate (92 – 95%) than soya bean protein (89%).
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Determining the number of pens and stalls required in a pig unit
One objective in planning a pig unit is to balance the accommodation between
the various ages and number of pigs. Ideally, each pen should be fully occupied
at all times, allowing only for a cleaning and sanitation period of about 7 days
between successive groups.
In the following example the number of different pens required in a 14-sow
herd, where 8 week weaning is practised, will be determined.
Determine the farrowing interval and number of farrowings per
year.
Average weaning to conception interval 20 days
Gestation 114 days
Suckling period (7x8 weeks) 56 days
Farrowing interval 190 days
Number of farrowing per sow per year
Determine the number of farrowing pens
The piglets remain in the farrowing pen until 12 weeks of age.
Before farrowing 7 days
Suckling period 56 days
Rearing weaners 28 days
Cleaning and sanitation of pen 7 days
Occupation per cycle 98 days
Thus one farrowing pen can be used for farrowing per pen.
A 14 sow herd with an average of 1.9 farrowings per sow and year
requires farrowing pens.
Determine the number of servicing / gestation pens.
Average weaning to conception interval 20 days
Gestation period less 7 days in farrowing pen 107 days
Cleaning and sanitation of pen 7 days
Occupancy per cycle 134 days
Thus one place in the servicing / gestation accommodation can be used for:
365/134 = 2.7 farrowings per year
With a total of 27 farrowing a year
27/2.7 = 10 places would be required.
Determining the number of places for replacement stock
Presume the sows on average get 5 litters, then 20 percent of all litters will be
from gilts.
Rearing of breeding stock (12 to 35 weeks) 168 days
Gestation less 7 days in farrowing pen 107 days
Cleaning and sanitation of pen 7 days
Occupancy per cycle 282 days
About 30% more animals are separated than the required number of gilts thus
the required number of places in the 14 sow herd will be
Determining the number of places in the growing / finishing
accommodation:
One stage finishing
Fattening of pigs 12 to 27 weeks of age (25 – 90kg) 105 days
Extra period for last pig in the pen to reach marketable weight 21 days
Cleaning and sanitation of pen 7 days
Occupancy per cycle 133 days
Assuming that 8 pigs per litter will survive to 12 weeks of age the number of
places required in the finishing accommodation will be:
That is 8 pens with 10 pigs in each or 10 pens if each litter should be kept
together.
Two stage growing / finishing unit:
Growing pigs 12 to 20 weeks of age will occupy a growing pen for 63 days
including 7 days for cleaning.
places are required in the unit.
Finishing pigs 20 to 27 weeks of age will occupy a finishing pen for 70 days
including 14 days emptying period and 7 days cleaning ( the emptying period
will be shorter if the pigs are sorted for size while being transferred from the
growing to the finishing pens)
places are required in the unit.
From the above example it will be appreciated that the number of pens of
various kinds required in a pig unit is based on a number of factors. It is,
therefore not possible to lay down hard and fast rules about the relative number
of pens in herds with average or good management and performance in tropical
conditions is given.
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Management systems in intensive commercial pig production
There is no standard or system of housing for pigs. Instead, accommodation
and equipment are chosen to suit the type of management system adopted.
However, there are certain similar principles and practices in most systems.
These originate from the fact that most pig units will contain pigs of different
classes.
Furrowing – suckling pens
In small and medium scale intensive pig production units a combined farrowing,
suckling and rearing pen is normally used. The sow is brought to this pen one
week before farrowing and stays there together with her litter for 5 to 8 weeks
when the piglets are weaned by removing the sow. The sow is often confined in
a farrowing crate a few days before, and up to a week after birth to reduce
piglet mortality caused by overlaying or trampling.
Early weaning after a suckling period of 5 to 6 weeks or even less can only be
recommended where management and housing is of good standard.
The piglets remain in the farrowing pen after weaning and until they are 12 to
14 weeks of age or weigh 25 to 30 kg.
Group keeping of farrowing-suckling sows that have given birth within a 2 to 3
weeks interval is possible, but is unusual in intensive production. However,
there a few acceptance problems and the litter cross-suckle and mix freely. The
pen should have at least 6m2 deep litter bedding per sow, with an additional
creep area of 1m2
In a large scale unit, which has separate farrowing house, sometimes either of
the following two alternative systems is practiced instead of the system
described above.
The first alternative is similar to the system described above but the piglets are
moved two weeks after weaning to a weaner pen where they remain either until
they are 12 to 14 weeks of age (25 to 30kg) or until 18 to 20 weeks (45 to
60kg). Note that the piglet should always remain in the farrowing / suckling pen
for a further 1 to 2 weeks after the sow has been removed so that they are not
subjected to any new environmental or disease stress at the same time as they
are weaned. The weaning pens can contain one litter or up to 30 to 40 pigs. The
pigs are often fed ad libitum.
In the second alternative the sow is placed in a farrowing crate in a small pen
one week prior to birth. Two weeks after farrowing the sow and litter are moved
to a larger suckling pen until 12 to 14 weeks of age or be transferred to weaner
accommodation two weeks after weaning.
Dry sow pens
After weaning a sow will normally come to heat within 5 to 7 days and then at 3
weeks interval until successful mating. The average weaning to conception
interval can vary between 8 – 20 days depending on management. In the
period until pregnancy has been ascertained the sow is best kept in a pen or
stall in close proximity to the boar pen.
Gestating sows are kept in yards or pens in groups of up to 10 to 12 sows that
will farrow within 2 to 3 weeks interval. They can also be kept in individual pens
confined in stalls or tethered in stalls.
Weaner and fattening pens
The weaners, whether they come from a farrowing pen or a weaner pen, will at
12 to 14 weeks of age be sufficiently hardened to go to a growing / finishing
pen. Finishing can be accomplished either in one stage in a growing / finishing
pen from 25 to 90kg or in two stages so that the pigs are kept in a small
growing pen until they weigh 50 to 60kg and are then moved to a larger
finishing pen where they remain until they reach marketable weight.
Although finishing pens are sometimes kept in groups of 30 or more, pigs in a
group of 9 to 12, or even less, show better growth performance in intensive
systems. An alternative, where growing and finishing are carried out in the
same facility, is to start about 12 pigs in the pen and later, during the finishing
period, reduce the number to 9 by taking out the biggest or smallest pigs from
each pen.
Replacement pens
In intensive systems a sow will, on average, produce 3 to 6 litters before she is
culled of infertility, low productivity or age. Yung breeding stock should be
separated from the rest of the litter at about 3 months of age, since they should
be less intensively fed than the fattening pigs. Gilts are first covered when they
are 7 to 9 months of age or weigh 105 to 120kg. After mating they can either
be kept in the same pen up to 1 week before farrowing, or kept in the gestating
sow accommodation, but in a separate group.
Boars are usually quiet if run with other boars or with pregnant sows, but may
develop vicious habits if shut up alone.
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How to improve production of scavenging pigs
Pig farming in Kenya can yield a rapid rate of return on capital employed if only
pig farmers make little attempt to obtain maximum productivity. Often pig
farmers let pigs to roam freely scavenging for their food and occasionally
supplementing them with kitchen waste or farm by-products. Local breeds are
kept where shelter or veterinary arrangements are rarely considered.
To help improve the productivity and health of these scavenging pigs, simple
management practices can be employed.
Feeding
Make sure that the available feedstuff is properly distributed. The best of the
feedstuff should be given to the pregnant and the nursing sows who supply your
future breeding stock, and also to the piglets that have just been weaned so
that they get off to a good start in life. You can also raise the quality of the feed
by adding feed supplements to the basic ration.
Enclosing the animals
Keep the pigs in fenced paddocks with shade to protect them from direct sun,
which can cause sunburn, and sometimes sunstroke particularly with white
skinned pig. Provide adequate supply of fresh drinking water in the paddock and
supplementary feed secure from neighboring pigs. This makes it possible to
control disease and parasites thereby reducing the often very high mortality
rate. It also improves the poor reproductive and growth performance and
inferior quality of meat. The paddock can be sub-divided into 4 – 6 smaller
areas so that pigs can be moved from one enclosure to another at two week
intervals.
You can make further improvements by sorting out the pigs into the different
classes. Because rapid growth is important, enclose all the fatteners while the
breeding stock can be left outside. Pregnant sows should be separated from the
others just before farrowing and brought inside to deliver. With proper housing
a greater number of piglets can be produced.
Provide wallows
Provide wallowing or sprinklers to alleviate heat stress. Being unable to sweat
sufficiently pigs have a natural instinct to wallow to increase the evaporative
cooling from the skin.
Breed selected sows to selected sires
Choose the right boars to breed the right sows. Select the stronger piglets for
breeding. The remaining piglets can be fattened for sale or for slaughter.
Separating out the best sows for breeding and providing good housing and
proper attention will improve the performance of the herd. It is worthwhile to
invest in a good boar to produce strong healthy litters. Buying a boar is a
serious investment, and is a project that a group of farmers may wish to
undertake together. It is also very useful to exchange boars with other farmers
in order to avoid the problems of inbreeding.
Worm control
Pigs kept outside will always be infested with worms. The problem of worm
infestation in outdoor pigs can be reduced by regularly changing the grazing
area. Give the animals a fresh piece of ground about every 14 days. In dry
periods the animals can stay longer in the same field because the worms do not
develop so quickly.
After a period of grazing the field should be left empty for a while to allow the
larvae to die. In the wet season it is better to leave a field for about 2.5 to 3
months before re-using it; in the dry season when the larvae and eggs die more
quickly, the field can be used again after 2 months. With this system, changing
the enclosure every two weeks requires at least four different fields, which is
expensive. If there is a shortage of land, in some areas a simple pigsty can be
made to keep the pigs in during the wet season. By letting the pigs out in the
dry season only, less land will be required.
To prevent young piglets from being infected directly after birth, the breeding
sows should be dewormed about 1 week before delivery. After deworming, the
sows should be washed to ensure that there are no worm eggs clinging to them.
They should then be kept inside for delivery. To prevent re-contamination, the
pen should be properly cleaned every day. All this being done, the young piglets
stand a good chance of being born into a worm-free environment.
Part confinement
You can keep only part of the herd in confinement. The order of priority of
confinement for the different classes of pig should be:
Growing/finishing pigs (25 – 90kg or more liveweight) for higher daily gain,
better feed conversion and parasite control.
Farrowing and lactating sows, to reduce pre-weaning mortality and for higher
quality weaners
Gestating sows, to allow individual feeding and better control of stock
You can construct simple semi-covered pens of rough timber with a thatch roof
and floor of concrete. An earth floor can be used, but is more difficult to keep
clean and sanitary. Several pens in a row can be arranged as required although
cleaning can be very difficult in this arrangement.
While such improvements have the advantage of low investment in buildings
they should only be regarded as first steps in raising the general level of pig
production in your farm. The raising of pigs in confinement is usually advisable
in circumstances where
Good management is available
High quality pigs are introduced
Farrowing occur at regular intervals throughout the year
Land is scarce or not accessible all the year
Balanced rations are available
Labour is expensive
Parasite and disease control is necessary
The target is commercial production
Herd size is reasonably large
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Routine husbandry practices when raising pigs
Feeding pigs
Feed all animals twice a day with a restricted amount of dry concentrates and
free access to fresh water. Restricted access is used for the following reasons:
It gives maximal feed conversion efficiency (FCE). FCE is the most important
factor in the economy of feeding of pigs as the cost of feeds account for
about 70% of the total costs in pig production.
Restricted feeding gives animals meat quality. The most important factors in
grading of pigs meat in Kenya are carcass weight, back-fat thickness and
age. A too high level of feeding will produce a carcass with too much fat and
subsequent low grading.
Recording of feed consumption makes it possible to calculate FCE for various
groups.
Alternative feeding systems are adlib and semi adlib feeding.
The feeding standards used are available at the National Research Council and
Kenya Bureau of Standards.
Feed mixtures
Feeds for pigs must be energy rich, low in crude fibres and contain all nutrients
required by pigs. Various age groups have different nutrient requirements.
Commercial feed mixtures commonly used are.
Sow and weaner meal is used for all breeding animals and growing pigs from
weaning to about 50kg liveweight.
Pig finishing meal is used for finishing pigs from 50kg liveweight to
marketing.
Creep pellets are used from 2 weeks to weaning.
Other available commercial feed mixtures for pigs are cereal balancers used to
mix with home grown cereals, and skim balancer used together with skim milk.
Home made mixtures
No simple feedstuffs contain all nutrients pigs need in the correct proportion. A
feed mixture will principally be composed of
Energy rich feeds (cereals)
Protein feeds (plant or animal origin)
Mineral feeds (salts)
Vitamin premix
Cleaning
Routine daily cleaning – Remove the manure from all pens twice per day.
Clean empty pens to reduce transfer of diseases. Thoroughly and mechanically
clean by scrubbing with water and brush all pens which are emptied when either
the pigs are sent to slaughter or transferred to other pens.
Prepare farrowing pens because newborns are more susceptible to all diseases
than older pigs. One of the most important steps in reduction of mortality in
pigs is to provide the newborn pigs with an optimal environment. About one
week before the expected time for farrowing the sow is brought into the
farrowing pen. Before this clean and disinfect the pen and wash the sow then
treat for external and internal parasites. Equip the creep area when farrowing is
expected to ensure an environment with optimal temperature and humidity free
from draught.
Weighing
Suckling pigs
The weight at birth, 2,3,4,6 and 8 weeks indicate milk production in the sow
and mothering abilities.
Growing pigs
Weigh growing pigs once per fortnight and when approaching market weight
once per week. This is useful for
Allocation of amounts of feeds
Calculation of growth rate and FCE
Checking performance
Estimate the most economic time for slaughter.
Method for estimation of liveweight
Suckling pigs can easily be weighed by an ordinary scale. Older pigs (20 kg
upwards), however, can only be weighed in special scale designed for weighing
animals. Heavier animals are cumbersome to handle.
The liveweights can roughly be estimated from the heart girth. The weight can
then either be estimated directly from the weigh band or from tables. Such
tables vary according to type of pigs, breeds and level of feeding.
Castration
Castrate all male pigs to avoid the “Boar taste” which develops in boars
approaching sexual maturity. Castration is easily done at 3 weeks of age. Avoid
castration of sick pigs and check for malformations such as cryptochidism,
hernia and intersex.
Parasite control
Spray against external parasites such as lice and mange. Spray sows once or
twice leaving a three weeks interval. Then spray the last time one week before
farrowing.
Piglets at weaning
Spray growing pigs and boars when necessary. Don’t spray during the last week
before slaughter.
Deworming should be done at the same time as spraying.
Identification
Although ear tattooing is cheap and can be used on new born, it can be difficult
on older pigs. Ear notching is also cheap but one must know the system to be
able to interpret the numbers. Notched ears can be damaged during fighting or
ear biting and cannot be used on new born. Ear tags are easy to read but
expensive and can be lost.
Practically all newborn pigs are tattooed and ear notched at weaning. Breeding
animals are ear tagged
Selection of breeding animals
Factors to consider when selecting breeding animals ranked according to
importance.
Feed conversion efficiency
Backfat thickness (lean to fat ratio)
Fertility, litter size
Growth rate
Conformation
Type
Body length
Weight gain in piglets
Heat detection and mating
Gilts have their first heat at 5 – 6 months age. They should not be served
before 8 months and 100 kg liveweight.
Sows come on heat 2 – 5 days after weaning, depending on length of suckling
period
The length of heat is between 40 – 43 hours and ovulation takes place in the
beginning of the half of the estrus period.
Signs of heat include swelling and reddening of vulva and discharge of mucous,
changed behavior, restless, loss of appetite, and riding on others.
Gestation period takes 113 to 115 days.
Record keeping
Keep the following records:
Breeding animals
Service record
Litter size (dead, living)
Liveweight of piglets
Baconers
Liveweight
Feed consumption
Grading
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Feeding pigs
The daily nutrients required by pigs for maintenance, growth and reproduction
depend on the size and physiological state of the pig.
Pregnancy
During this stage the pig requires nutrients for maintenance and the growing
fetus. Requirements during pregnancy are above the maintenance because
nutrients are necessary for increased size and vascularity of the uterus as well
as the mammary glands in preparation for lactation. Fat addition to pregnancy
diets of pigs increases the blood glucose content of the piglets to be furrowed.
Lactation
In addition to energy required by the sow for maintenance, energy is also
required for milk production. The DE for maintenance for lactating sows is about
110 Kcal/kg live weight. Energy requirements for milk production are about
2000 Kcal per kg milk produced.
Pre-weaning stage
This is the period between birth and weaning of the piglet. Given that the new
pig is immature in terms of digestive development it is hardly worthwhile to
offer the new born a diet comprising cereals and other common ingredients until
the period between 21 and 28 days.
Growers and finishers
This is the period between weaning and marketing of pigs. Finishing stage
begins after 60kg live weight. During the growing phase pigs are fed a diet
slightly higher in protein. Finishing stage requires less protein. In both stages
diets can be offered based on cereals and plant proteins.
A diet for young piglets should include at leas 5% milk protein.
Pig feeds
In Kenya there three types of feeds in the market.
Creep feed – usually in pellets. Should not be less than 18% protein content
(CP). The feed is introduced to the sow 10 days before and after furrowing.
Creep feed is also fed to piglets until weaning or until they are 20 kg live
weight.
Sow and weaner – usually in mash form. This is normally for the breeding
stock. Feeding depend on the finishing type of pig and can be fed either
Adlib – fed up to 50 – 60 kg live weight for growers
Restricted – fed at 1.2 to 1.5 kg feed 20 to 30 kg live weight
The advantage of feeding adlib is in low feed: gain ratio and therefore
economical as compared to restricted feeding.
Finisher ration – fed to pigs of over 60 kg live weight. The ration is above 14%
CP and is fed on a restricted basis. This is good because the pig will not put on
too much fat.
If the feeding program is followed then the pigs will be marketed at 95 to 110
kg live weight usually within 200 days. This gives an average daily gain of 0.5
kg per day.Castrated boars are fed the same way.
Breeding gilts are fed on sow and weaner at 3kg per day until the time they
about to be serviced. Then 14 days prior to service feed is increased by 0.5 kg
per day. 14 days to the next estrus they are given 3.5 kg per day and after
serving feeding revert back to 3.0 kg per day.
A common practice around furrowing time is to temporarily restrict feed intake
in order to avoid overconsumption and problems related to constipation. Wheat
bran is fed ¼ to ½ in the sow and weaner meal to increase the rate of passage.
In the absence of wheat bran, maize bran, sawdust or any suitable filler
material can be used. Sows appetite is depressed following parturition therefore
feed restriction is warranted to avoid feed wastage.
Underfeeding of sows with substantial appetite shortly after furrowing should
however be avoided. As a compromise feed the newly furrowed sow at least 2
times a day and offer an amount of feed that can be cleared within 20 minutes.
Feed more frequently. Underfeeding shortly after furrowing will result in a
decrease of milk production and consequently piglet losses.
Feeding during lactation
A sow’s performance during lactation is affected by her feeding program during
the gestation period. Hence maximum yield during lactation is ensured by
proper feeding.
Sows can adjust to inadequate energy and protein intake during lactation in the
short term by utilizing body fat stores resulting in loss of body weight. A good
feeding program during lactation should not result in sows in good condition
during furrowing losing more than 10 kg. In practice lactating sows are given
feed at 3kg + additional 0.25kg per piglet. In some places it is recommended at
2.5 + 0.4kg per piglet – this is a situation where feeds are of high quality.
Should problems be encountered with sows losing body condition because of
poor appetite the following factors should be considered to improve feed intake.
Feed intake during pregnancy – sows overfed during pregnancy usually have
low feed intake during lactation
Environmental temperature of furrow house – feed intake can be lowered by
high temperatures. The ideal temperatures is 18 – 20oC
Energy level of feed – if there is low intake then increase energy density of
diet. This can be done by addition of tallow or sunflower oil at 6% of diet.
Increase frequency of feeding to increase feed intake. Also instead of dry
feeding, wet feeding will increase feed intake.
Form of feed – pelleted diet increase feed intake.
Weaning to breeding
There is a relationship between body fat and reproductive fitness of sows.
Slightly give the sow some additional feed according its condition after weaning.
Weaning to breeding time is about 5 to 7 days.
Guidelines to evaluate sow feeding program
Gilts weigh between 120 to 130 kg at first furrowing
Gilts should not lose more than 10 kg in the first lactation
Sows should have a net gain of 10 to 15 kg for each successive reproductive
cycle. This happens up to 4th to 5th lactation.
Live weight should stabilize at 160 to 170 kg
Total feed requirements per sow per year should be about 1000kg
Feeding boars
This follows the same scheme as for growing pigs until the boars are 60kg. After
60kg boars are fed on sow and weaner continuously – not pig finisher – until
they are ready for service. Mature boars are given 2.5 kg feed per day.
However depending on the condition of boar, ½ kg more or less feed is given.
Nutrients required by pigs and other farm animals
Water
Water is required to balance water losses, produce milk and form new tissue
during growth or pregnancy. The minimum daily requirements depend on age:-
Age in weeks Kg of water
16 – 18 7
Non pregnant gilts 11.5
Sows up to 20
The practical recommendation is to allow free access of water.
Energy
This is usually provided by carbohydrates. The amount of energy provided or
required is expressed in Kcal/kg or MJ/kg of feed. Energy required by pigs is
usually described in terms of Digestible Energy (DE) because DE is precisely
defined in pigs.
Protein and amino acids
Protein may not be required as such but is a necessary source of essential
amino acids and nitrogen for the synthesis of non essential amino acids.
Required amino acids include lysine, methionine, tryptophan, arginine and
histidine.
Cereal grains can provide 30 – 70% of the total protein required hence other
sources of protein like legumes must be provided to ensure adequate amounts
of essential amino acids.
The required amounts of protein and amino acids are expressed as percent of
diet.
Minerals
The required minerals include calcium, phosphorous, iron, and copper. The
required quantities are expressed as percent in diet or milligrams per kilogram
for trace elements.
Vitamins
These are required in very small quantities. There are two types
Fat soluble vitamins for example vitamins A,D,E, and K
Water soluble vitamins e.g. the B complex, niacin, and pyridoxine
Fats
They enhance the absorption of fat soluble vitamins and are required for certain
essential fatty acids. Requirements are expressed as percent of diet.
Feed sources for pigs
A well balanced feed ration should contain the necessary amount of energy,
protein, minerals and vitamins. Swine feed can be categorized into energy,
protein, vitamin or mineral sources.
Energy sources
Cereal grains
Cereal grains are considered to be the first class of energy feeds. For example
maize is an excellent source of energy. It has a (Digestible Energy) DE content
of 3525 Kcal/kg. Usually the energy value of maize is used as a standard in
which other energy sources are compared. Crude Protein (CP) is 8.5%. Maize
can be used up to 85% in the diet of pigs. However maize is low in lysine and
tryptophan therefore cannot be used as a sole source of feed.
Wheat is high in energy and its feeding value is equal to or slightly inferior to
maize. It is low in lysine and threonine. If it is to be included in pig diet it should
not be too fine.
Barley has 90% feeding value of maize. It should be ground but not too fine.
Has high lysine content to meet the needs of growing pigs. Only small amounts
of other protein sources are required to supply sufficient lysine and threonine.
Sorghum has 95% feeding value of maize. Grower/finisher ration may contain
up to 95% sorghum. Major limitation is tannin content especially the red
sorghum. Tannin depresses growth rate, nutrient digestibility and utilization and
palatability.
Dry cassava has practically a feeding value as maize. Inclusion of 50% cassava
depresses weight gain and feed efficiency. This effect can be counteracted by
addition of methionine in swine diet.
Cereal by-products
Wheat bran has 67% feeding value of maize but due to its high fiber content
should be restricted to diets of growing and finishing pigs and dry sows.
Maize bran has 86% feeding value of maize. High levels in pig diet however can
cause gastric ulcers.
Wheat pollard (middling) is high in energy and protein. It can be used as sole
source of protein and energy to finisher diet. However the feed efficiency and
dressing percentage decreases with increasing amounts of wheat pollard.
As a general guideline the cereal by-products are included in pig diet in
combination with other sources of energy mainly the cereal grains.
Protein feed sources
Usually the animal protein sources are superior because they have better amino
acid profile.
Fish meal is an excellent protein source. There are various types/sources of fish
meal. The various sources determine the quality of the feed. Fish meal also
provides adequate quantities of essential amino acids. The recommended
inclusion rates of fish meal in diet are 2 – 10%. Fishmeal should not be included
in diets of finisher ration because pork will be tainted and protein requirements
of finisher pig are low.
Soya bean meal is of plant origin. It is one of the most important plant protein
in livestock feeding. Protein amount varies depending on method of extraction.
The amino acid profile is not large but will meet requirements. Soya bean meal
can be used as sole protein source.
Cotton seed cake major limitation is gossypol content which is toxic. Effect of
gossypol can be counteracted by adding iron sulphate. Iron precipitates
gossypol but is not absorbed and also interacts with other minerals preventing
their absorption. Lysine is partially available. Cotton seed cake should be limited
to less than 10% of diet. Free gossypol content of diet should be less than
0.01%
Mineral and vitamin sources
The largest proportion of a ration is made of energy and protein sources. Most
of these will contain some vitamins and minerals but not adequate such that it
is necessary to supplement with pure sources. Among the necessary minerals is
sodium chloride or common salt. Common salt is routinely added to all swine
diets because almost all feedstuff are deficient in sodium and chloride. It is
commonly added at a level of 0.25 to 0.5 % of diet. Excess salt can be toxic. A
level of 2% for example is toxic to swine and in the absence of sufficient water
1% can be toxic. As a guideline common salt should not exceed 0.9%. Swill
should not have excess salt.
Calcium – almost all feedstuff contain some calcium but contents vary widely.
For example cereals have 0.02 to 0.1%. Plant protein supplements vary in
calcium content usually from 0.17% to 0.66% therefore specific supplements
high in calcium are almost always required in formulating swine diet. Good
sources for swine diet are limestone and oyster shell. Sources which contain
both calcium and phosphorous can also be used e.g. dicalcium phosphate and
deflourinated phosphates.
Phosphorous is present in variable amounts in almost all feedstuff but only a
fraction is available because non ruminants like pigs lack the necessary
enzymes to digest them in the guts. Inorganic sources of phosphorous are
therefore used.
Zinc can be lacking especially when calcium is excess. Zinc is added to pig diet
predominantly as zinc oxide.
Vitamin sources
The vitamins supplied by energy and protein sources are inadequate to meet
metabolic needs. Some of the vitamin most likely to be low in natural diet are
niacin, B12, vitamin A and D. In practice a commercial preparation is added at
the rate of 0.1 to 0.5%. Similarly trace mineralized salts are added, premixed
then incorporated in diet.
Feed additives
Feed additives include antibiotics and growth promoting materials. They are
good in terms of growth rate, feed conversion efficiency and reduced mortality.
Among the antibiotics approved by FDA are tetracyclines and lincomycin
normally added at sub-therapeutic levels. Other feed additives are probiotics
like fungi and bacteria which promote beneficial microorganism and suppress
harmful ones.
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How to make your own pig feed on the farm
A bag of pig feed costs more than KSh 3,000 in the market. Feeds take up to 80 per cent of pig
production costs. Farmers can make their own feeds and sell surplus feed to other farmers. What
they need is to know the rations of mixing the different ingredients.
Pig rearing is once again becoming popular due to increased pork consumption in most of Kenya’s
urban areas. More farmers are venturing into the business to diversify their farming activities and
take advantage of the good prices offered by processing companies due to the shortage of pigs in
the country. However, feeding of pigs is a major challenge for most of the pig farmers. Pig feeds are
expensive, taking up to 80 per cent of a farmer’s production costs. A bag of pig feed now sells at an
average of KSh 3400.
Pig feed should be of high quality to ensure the pigs grow to the desired weight for the market. Due
to the huge demand for information on pig feeding TOF provides farmers with information they would
require on pig feeding and give more feed formulations that can help them cut the cost of pig
production:
Piglets
Young pigs do not take much in terms of solid feed because they get all their nutritional needs from
their mothers' milk. To ensure piglets get enough milk from suckling during the early stages of
growth, farmers should give the sows adequate and balanced feed to ensure they produce adequate
milk for the piglets. At three weeks after farrowing (birth), the farmer should castrate all male piglets
and start to train them to eat solid feeds. Suckling piglets should also have their sharp teeth clipped,
three days after farrowing to prevent them causing injury to their mother during suckling.
Assuming a farmer has 10 piglets to feed, they can isolate a creep area (housing for young ones)
where their mother cannot reach and put in 50g of feed per piglet per day. Observe the feeding daily;
if you see the feed reducing, add another 50g for each into their feeding trough to make it 1kg. At 5
weeks (35 to 42 days) add another 50g per piglet to make it 150g. The piglets should always have
access to their mother in case they want to suckle. They should also have access to clean water at
all times.
Weaners
At 6 weeks, each piglet should be getting 200g of feed per week. If they finish the feed, keep on
adding an extra 50g per piglet daily. During the feeding process, the farmer should weigh the pigs
weekly (a healthy pig at this stage should add at least 900g per day). If there is an increase in weight
at this rate, it means that the pigs are growing well. Weaners should be given dry feed at all times to
prevent scouring or diarrhoea. Give adequate clean water at all times.
Porkers
At 14 weeks, the pigs will require additional feed; the farmer can give 1.4kg of extra feed per pig per
day. In addition, the farmer should continue giving the 50g of feed as they were doing before. Divide
the pig feed into three equal portions:
A wet ration in the morning at 7 am (feed mixed with water), a dry feed at noon (feed with no water)
and a final wet feed (feed mixed with water) at 4 pm. A well-fed porker pig should add an extra 300g
of weight per day (weigh them regularly and record their weight to monitor their growth).
Baconers
At 22 weeks, the pigs (now called baconers) require a higher feed ration as they are about to attain
the market liveweight of between 80-90kg. At this stage the farmer should give them 2.5 – 2.75kg of
feed per pig per day. From 23 weeks, the feed should be increased to 3kg (1kg of wet feed in the
morning, 1kg of dry feed at noon and 1kg of wet feed at 4pm). If well managed at this stage pigs can
attain up to 100kg in 5 months.
At this stage the farmers can now do selection of the pigs to determine those that can go to the
abbattoir for slaughter, young female pigs (gilts) can be served and sold to interested farmers while
others can be retained for breeding as sows. The boars (male pigs) can also be sold or retained for
breeding purposes (be careful to ensure the pig does not serve its daughters or related pigs to avoid
inbreeding). A well-managed baconer should add an extra 900g to 1000g (1 kg) per day.
Sows
Sows need special attention in feeding. A sow’s yield can be as high as 16-17 litres of milk per day.
To produce this amount of milk, a sow has to be well fed, both for body maintenance and milk
production. A sow with piglets that are suckling requires 6 kilogrammes of feed every day or an
amount of feed that is equal to 25 % of her body weight.
The feeding should be divided into 3 rations (2kg of wet feed in the morning, 2kg of dry feed at noon
and 2kg of wet feed at 4pm). Like other pigs, sows should be given adequate and clean water at all
times.
Gilts
A female pig that is not yet served (gilts) should be given at least 3kg of feed per day. The farmer
can supplement this with any other available feed in addition to this ration to keep them in good
shape in terms of health and reproduction.
Boars
Male pigs (boars) should not be given a lot of feed. If given more feed, they tend to put more weight
and this compromises their fertility. A boar should be given 3 to 4 kg of feed per day. Some farmers
give less or even starve them in order to reduce fattening. Give them clean water at all times.
Pig feed formulation
Feed formulation is not easy especially for small-scale farmers due to lack of raw materials and the
technical knowledge on how to prepare their own feeds. For farmers keeping a few pigs, we would
advise that they buy feeds from reputable companies who are known to make quality feeds.
However, such farmers can reduce their feed costs considerably if they can formulate
supplementary feeds like sweet potato vines.
However, for farmers who want to keep many pigs, say, between 500 to 1000 pigs, it makes
economic sense to make their own feeds as long as they can get the right raw materials for feed
formulation. Below, we give farmers two methods they can use to make pig feed in order to reduce
their feed costs:
Feed formula 1: Making silage from sweet potato vines
Sweet potato vines are very nutritious pig feed if well prepared and preserved. Here is how to
prepare them:
• Cut 60-100kg of sweet potato vines and spread them dry in the sun for about 30 minutes.
• Chop the vines into tiny pieces and mix them with 10 kg of maize germ or pig growers mash.
• Sprinkle ½ kg of mineral salt and mix thoroughly.
• Put the mixture into an airtight 250-litre plastic tank. Compress the vines firmly to remove any air
spaces as you do when preparing silage.
• Add some little EM1 solution to improve the quality of the silage.
• Cover the tank airtight. Let it stay for 14 days (two weeks).
• Open the tank to check if the silage is ready- if the silage has a sweet smell and has turned yellow
in colour, then it is ready feeding.
• You can feed the sweet potato silage to pigs from four months of age, sows, gilts and boars at any
time before or after feeding their usual daily rations.
Pig farmers who incorporate sweet potato silage into the pig diet can cut their feed costs by up to 30
per cent. In addition, the sweet potato tubers can be eaten or sold in the market, a kilogramme of
sweet potato tuber retails for between KSh 60 to KSh 80.
Other supplementary feeds suitable for pigs include sukumawiki (kales), vegetables, cabbages,
lucerne, amaranth (terere), avocadoes, pawpaws or even bananas. Hotel leftovers (also called
sweal) can be given to pigs but farmers must be very careful because food leftovers may be
contaminated; the food can be reboiled (cooked again) to ensure all disease-causing organisms are
destroyed before the leftover are given to pigs.
Feed formula 2
48kg of maize germ
12kg of pollard
12.5kg of soya cake
7.5kg of fishmeal
0.75kg of lime
1kg of bonemeal
125g of salt
150g of lysine
150g of feed premix
300g of zinc
This pig feed ration has a Digestible Crude Protein (DCP) content of 22.3% and can be given to pigs
at all stages of growth. Put all the ingredients in a feed mixer and mix thoroughly to ensure they are
evenly distributed. In Nakuru, Nairobi and Thika, there are many feed raw material suppliers. Feed
premix, lysine, bonemeal and lime are also available from selected agrovet shops in most towns.
Feed formula 3
How to prepare 7 bags of pig feed
60kg of whole maize
210kg of maize germ
140kg of pollard
50kg of soya cake
27kg of fishmeal (or first grade omena)
4kg of bone meal
7kg of lime
1kg of salt
1kg of Premix (grower or sow
and weaner)
1kg of lysine
2kg of zinc
Important: Farmers should use clean maize, not rotten one (maozo). If using omena, the quality
should be high. The above formula has the following percentages of nutrients:
Protein- 16.83%
Fat – 5.05%
Fibre-4.43%
Lysine-0.89%.
Major raw material suppliers are:
1. Tarime Suppliers Tel. 0729 099550, Nairobi.
2. Essential Drugs Ltd, E.D.L House, Mombasa Rd, Tel. 020 263 2701/02, 0721 386 604
email: [email protected]
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