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ContrastiveContrastive LinguisticsLinguistics:: IntroductionIntroduction
1950s:1950s: basedbased onon structuralismstructuralism ToTo makemake foreignforeign languagelanguage teachingteaching moremore effectiveeffective BasedBased onon thethe assumptionsassumptions thatthat::
ForeignForeign languagelanguage learninglearning isis basedbased onon thethe mothermothertonguetongue
PositivePositive transfertransfer:: similaritiessimilarities facilitatefacilitate learninglearning NegativeNegative transfertransfer//InterferenceInterference:: differencesdifferences causecause
problemsproblems ViaVia contrastivecontrastive analysisanalysis:: problemsproblems cancan bebe predictedpredicted andand
consideredconsidered inin thethe curriculumcurriculum
CLCL seenseen as anas an appliedapplied branchbranch ofoflinguisticslinguistics ServingServing practicalpractical purposespurposes inin foreignforeign and secondand second
languagelanguage teachingteaching ExpectationsExpectations werewere notnot metmet InterestInterest in CLin CL declineddeclined ((especiallyespecially inin thethe US)US) In Europe,In Europe, interestinterest continuedcontinued; large; large contrastivecontrastive
projectsprojects inin thethe 1970s1970s ExpandingExpanding fieldfield;; theoreticaltheoretical andand methodologicalmethodological
interestinterest InternationalisationInternationalisation increasinglyincreasingly demandsdemands crosscross--
culturalcultural competencecompetence,, translationtranslation,, foreignforeignlanguagelanguage teachingteaching etc.etc.
Language pedagogy
Translation theory
Language typology
Language description
Language universalsIntercultural
communication
MethodologicalMethodological stepssteps in CLin CL
1.1. DescriptionDescription:: SelectionSelection ofofitemsitems toto bebe comparedcompared CharacterisationCharacterisation ofofitemsitems inin termsterms ofofsomesome languagelanguage
independentindependent theoreticaltheoretical modelmodel
2.2. JuxtapositionJuxtaposition SearchSearch forfor andand identificationidentification ofofcrosscross--linguisticlinguistic
equivalentsequivalents
3.3. ComparisonComparison:: SpecificationSpecification ofofdegreedegree andand typetype ofofcorrespondencecorrespondencebetweenbetween comparedcompared itemsitems
ProblemsProblems TertiumTertiumComparationisComparationis::
LgLg a anda and LgLg bb differdiffer inin structurestructure translationtranslation equivalenceequivalence::
meaningmeaning of ofstructurestructure a >a > structurestructure bb meaningmeaning structurestructure a =a = meaningmeaning structurestructure b?b?
Das gefllt mirDas gefllt mir
IIlikelikethisthis
CelaCelamemeplaitplait//JaimeJaimecelacela
gefallen = togefallen = tolikelike==plaireplaire==aimeraimer??
SimilarSimilar::PresentPresentPerfectPerfectvs. Perfekt vs. passvs. Perfekt vs. passcomposcompos
norm,norm, standardstandard ??
languagelanguage independentindependent modelmodel??
PredictabilityPredictability L1L1--basedbased errorserrors vs. nonvs. non--L1L1--basedbased errorserrors
ComplexityComplexityofoflanguagelanguagesystemssystems
Analysis ofAnalysis ofsubsystemssubsystems
DifferencesDifferencesvs.vs. similaritiessimilarities
ImportanceImportance ofofcrosslinguisticscrosslinguistics similaritiessimilarities
Langue vs.Langue vs.paroleparole
StaticStatic viewview onon languagelanguage ContextContext Levels ofLevels oflinguisticlinguistic descriptiondescription inin theorytheory andand
practicepractice
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Levels ofLevels ofdescriptiondescription
PhonologyPhonologyMorphoMorpho--Syntax / GrammarSyntax / GrammarLexisLexis
PragmaticsPragmaticsCultureCulture
TerminologyTerminology
ContrastiveContrastiveAnalysisAnalysisTransfer: positive and negativeTransfer: positive and negativeInterferenceInterferenceHypercorrectionHypercorrectionError Analysis Error Analysis predictingpredicting errorserrors
ContrastiveContrastive PhonologyPhonology
PhonemicPhonemic inventoriesinventories// phonemicphonemic systemssystemsPhonotacticsPhonotacticsSuprasegmentalsSuprasegmentals
ForeignForeign accentaccentStereotypesStereotypes
Causes/ErrorsCauses/Errors
SubstitutionSubstitution examplesexamples
Neutralisation (Auslautverhrtung)Neutralisation (Auslautverhrtung) examplesexamples
Distribution ofDistribution ofallophonesallophones examplesexamples
Stress andStress and intonationintonation patternspatterns
PhonemicPhonemic systemssystemsStudentStudent presentationpresentation::
VowelVowel andand consonantconsonant contrastscontrasts PhonotacticPhonotactic rulesrules
SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmentalsStressStress
CompoundsCompounds withwith levellevel stress (stress (eveneven stress)stress)
IntonationIntonation GlottalGlottal stopstop ((MairMair 1995: 19)1995: 19) FallFall--riserise intonationintonation vs.vs. lowlow--riserise intonationintonation
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Stress:Stress: levellevel stressstress
Definition:Definition: Unter ebener Betonung versteht man eineUnter ebener Betonung versteht man eine
Betonungsart, nach der zwei miteinanderBetonungsart, nach der zwei miteinanderverbundene oder auch freistehende, jedochverbundene oder auch freistehende, jedochinnerlich zusammengehrende Wrter (Wortsilben)innerlich zusammengehrende Wrter (Wortsilben)mit gleich starkem Druck (mit gleich starkem Druck (evenevenoderoder levellevelstressstress))gesprochen werden, sogesprochen werden, so dada zwei betonte Silbenzwei betonte Silbenunmittelbar aufeinander folgen, mitunter aber auchunmittelbar aufeinander folgen, mitunter aber auchdurch eine oder zwei unbetonte Silben getrenntdurch eine oder zwei unbetonte Silben getrenntsein knnen. (Bornemann 1954: 200)sein knnen. (Bornemann 1954: 200)
PatternsPatterns
1.1. : : roastroastbeefbeef,, weekweek--endend,, armarm--chairchair,, sheshe--catcat,, mankindmankind
steinreich, todernst, stahlblau, eiskalt, kreisrund steinreich, todernst, stahlblau, eiskalt, kreisrund
2.2. a: a: plumplum--puddingpudding,, toytoysoldierssoldiers, hot, hotwaterwater,, oldold--fashionedfashioned
Endsumme, goldrichtig, zwlf Liter Endsumme, goldrichtig, zwlf Liter
3.3. a : a : London Bridge,London Bridge, silversilverwatchwatch, bitter, bittercoldcold,, easyeasychairchair, ,
kreidebleich, totenstill, federleicht, riesengro kreidebleich, totenstill, federleicht, riesengro
4.4. a a: a a: silversilverpencilpencil,, overcrowdedovercrowded,, reestablishreestablish, ,
Dienstagmorgen, hundemde, tatendurstig, Dienstagmorgen, hundemde, tatendurstig,
5.5. a a a: a a a: Buckingham Palace, Waterloo Station, Buckingham Palace, Waterloo Station,
Frankfurter Wrstchen, Leipziger Messe, Edamer Kse Frankfurter Wrstchen, Leipziger Messe, Edamer Kse
6.6. (a) a a a (a):(a) a a a (a): CommanderCommander--inin--chiefchief, University College, , University College,
Zentralkommission, EntschdigungssummeZentralkommission, Entschdigungssumme
MinimalMinimal pairspairs: English: English
Level stress vs.Level stress vs. alternatingalternating stressstress aablackblackbirdbirdvs. avs. ablackbirdblackbird
thethedyingdyingindustryindustryvs.vs. thethedyeingdyeingindustryindustry
a noble man vs. aa noble man vs. anoblemannobleman
aaloudloudspeakerspeakervs. avs. aloudspeakerloudspeaker
totomakemake--upupvs.vs. thethemakemake--upup
Distribution?Distribution?
MinimalMinimal pairspairs: German: German Level stress vs.Level stress vs. alternatingalternating stressstress
frh reif vs. frhreiffrh reif vs. frhreif
voll Milch vs. Vollmilchvoll Milch vs. Vollmilch
mit Gift vs. Mitgiftmit Gift vs. Mitgift
eineinSchuSchuvs.vs. EinschuEinschu
ein Fach vs. einfachein Fach vs. einfach
ein Topf vs. Eintopfein Topf vs. Eintopf
Distribution?Distribution?
ContrastsContrasts//problemsproblems Level stressLevel stress moremore frequentfrequent in Englishin English
typologicaltypological characteristiccharacteristic:: lossloss ofofinflectionsinflections ininEnglishEnglish
hothotdaydayvs.vs. heiheiererTagTag weekendweekendvs.vs. WochWochenenendeende London BridgeLondon Bridgevs.vs. LondonLondonererBrckeBrcke
SomeSome compoundcompound nounsnouns ((nounnoun ++ nounnoun)) in German: stress onin German: stress on firstfirst nounnoun ((determinansdeterminans) an in) an in
English:English: levellevel stressstress ExamplesExamples::
mankindmankindvs. Menschheitvs. Menschheit gardengardenfencefencevs. Gartenzaunvs. Gartenzaun
shortshortstorystoryvs. Kurzgeschichtevs. Kurzgeschichte
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IntonationIntonation
DifferencesDifferences ofofmeaningmeaning producedproduced byby thethe useuseof differentof different intonationintonation patternspatterns
IfIfthesethese areare notnot perceivedperceived oror correctlycorrectlyidentifiedidentified andand subsequentlysubsequently lost:lost: MiscommunicationMiscommunication//misunderstandingsmisunderstandings
CommunicationCommunication breakdownbreakdown MisinterpretationMisinterpretation ofofattitudesattitudes andand intentionsintentions
German and EnglishGerman and English prosodicprosodic systemssystems
German and EnglishGerman and English prosodicprosodic systemssystems arearecloselyclosely relatedrelated StressStress signalledsignalled acousticallyacoustically aa combinationcombination ofof
lengthlength,, intensityintensity,, frequencyfrequency StressStress isis ascribedascribed toto particularparticular syllablessyllables inin wordswords
and toand to wordswords withinwithin sentencessentences Prominent andProminent and nonnon--prominentprominent stress,stress, whichwhich areare
distinguisheddistinguished byby pitchpitch differencesdifferences FallingFalling tonestones areare basicallybasically completivecompletive RisingRising tonestones basicallybasically continuativecontinuative ((cfcf.. TrimTrim 1988: 239)1988: 239)
ContrastsContrasts cancan bebe foundfound inin thethe distributiondistribution ofofprominent andprominent and nonnon--prominentprominent stress instress inphrasesphrases In English,In English, contentcontent wordword areare normallynormally prominentprominent
ififthethe conceptconcept expressedexpressed isis newnew In German,In German, contentcontent wordswords formform groupsgroups,, whichwhich
containcontain onlyonly aa singlesingle prominent stress.prominent stress. ThereforeTherefore adjectivesadjectives andand verbsverbs areare moremore oftenoften
nonnon--prominentprominent in Germanin German thanthan in Englishin English
ResultsResults in ain a foreignforeign accentaccent butbut doesdoes notnotcausecause miscommunicationmiscommunication::
TheThe oldold manman camecame homehome atat sixsix oclockoclockinin thethemorningmorning.. CHCH2T4c2T4clzmlzm jdHljdHl g2Tl{?sg2Tl{?srHjrrHjr ??jkPjjkPj HmC?HmC?
[[lN9mhMlN9mhM{{{{
Der alte Mann ist um sechs Uhr morgensDer alte Mann ist um sechs Uhr morgensnach Hause gekommen.nach Hause gekommen. cd`cd` `ks?`ks?l`m{HrsTll`m{HrsTl yDjryDjr t9`t9`{{lN`fmrlN`fmr{{m`9wm`9w
[[g`nyg`ny??f?jNl?mf?jNl?m{{{{
ResultsResults ofofinterferenceinterference:: y?y?n9ksn9ks lDmlDm{{jd-ljd-l gn9lgn9l{Ds{DsrHjrrHjr n9jkNjn9jkNj{hmy?{hmy?
[[ln`mHMln`mHM{{{{
cD?qcD?q U4s?U4s?[[lUmlUm{HrsTl{HrsTlyDjryDjr T`T` [[lN9f?mylN9f?my{{mUjmUj
g`Ty`g`Ty`{{f?j@f?j@ [[l?ml?m{{{{
FallingFalling intonationintonation FallingFalling intonationintonation posepose fewfew problemsproblems, apart, apart
fromfrom fromfrom differentdifferent rolesroles ofofdynamicdynamic andandpitchpitch rangerange:: EnglishEnglish speakersspeakers useuse pitchpitch rangerange forfor emphasisemphasis GermanGerman speakersspeakers useuse dynamicdynamic rangerange forfor emphasisemphasis As aAs a resultresult, English, English peoplepeople maymay interpretinterpret GermanGerman
speakersspeakers attemptattempt toto introduceintroduce varietyvariety bybyincreasedincreased volumevolume asas angeranger,, thethe purposepurpose forfor whichwhichloudnessloudness isis usedused in Englishin English
RisingRising intonationintonation RisingRising intonationintonation isis usedused differentlydifferently
In German:In German: RisingRising intonationintonation inin yesyes/no/no questionsquestions UsuallyUsually a higha high riserise,, veryvery rarelyrarely a falla fall riserise intonationintonation NoNo risingrising intonationsintonations atat thethe end ofend ofnonnon--interrogativeinterrogative
sentencessentences
In English:In English: UsuallyUsually aa lowlow riserise thanthan a higha high riserise inin yesyes/no/no questionsquestions English alsoEnglish also usesuses risingrising intonationsintonations atat thethe end ofend ofnonnon--
interrogativeinterrogative sentencessentences
ThisThis cancan bebe interpretetdinterpretetd asas unfinishedunfinished sentencessentencesbyby GermansGermans
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In EnglishIn English risingrising intonationsintonations cancan implyimply AA lowlow riserise: a: a relationrelation ofofconsequenceconsequence A fallA fall riserise: a: a relationrelation ofofcontrastcontrast
In EnglishIn English wewe thusthus havehave withwith imperativesimperatives(and(and withwith statementsstatements):): FallingFalling intonationintonation indicatesindicates an orderan order ComeComeherehere!!
AA lowlow riserise isis reassuringreassuring oror encouragingencouraging ComeComeherehere(and(andIllIllgivegiveyouyousoemthingsoemthingnicenice)) A fallA fall riserise conveysconveys aa warningwarning oror aa threatthreat ComeComeherehere((ororyouyouwontwontgetgetaasweetsweet))
TheseThese usesuses areare unknownunknown toto GermansGermans
ConsequencesConsequences/Problems/Problems
For EnglishFor English speakersspeakers:: TheThe feelingfeeling ofofimpositionimposition isis createdcreated byby thethe useuse ofof
fallingfalling intonationsintonations,, becausebecause theythey areare perceivedperceived asasbeingbeing completivecompletivePossibilityPossibility ofofdisagreementdisagreement feltfelt toto bebe excludedexcludedFreedomFreedom ofofresponseresponse feltfelt toto bebe restrictedrestricted
ForFor GermansGermans:: ManyMany modificationsmodifications areare missedmissed
DifferentDifferent politenesspoliteness strategiesstrategies
TenseTense,, aspectaspect, and, and aktionsartaktionsart
DifficultDifficult categoriescategoriesTerminologicalTerminological andand conceptualconceptual confusionconfusion
Joan wasJoan wassingingsingingvs. Johnvs. Johnisissingingsinging: TENSE: TENSE
Joan wasJoan wassingingsingingvs. John sang: ASPECTvs. John sang: ASPECT
Time andTime and languagelanguageGrammaticalisationGrammaticalisation vs.vs. lexicalisationlexicalisation
Time andTime and languagelanguage
ConceptualisationConceptualisation of timeof time CultureCulture--specificspecific TimeTime arrowarrow// straightstraight timetime lineline vs.vs. cyclecycle Impact onImpact on oror relevancerelevance forfor grammaticalgrammatical
categoriescategories??
All humanAll human languageslanguages havehave waysways ofoflocatinglocating
in timein time
RepresentationRepresentation of timeof time
PAST FUTUREPRESENT
Present moment
RepresentationsRepresentations ofofsituationssituationsSituations: Processes
EventsStates
A B C D
E
G
F
H
I
Cf. Comrie 1985: 6
1. Location of situations in relationto some other point or segment ofline
2. Internal temporal contour of asituation: point on the line vs.stretch of the time line
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ExpressionsExpressions of timeof time
ExpressionsExpressions cancan bebe divideddivided intointo threethree classesclasses:: LexicallyLexically compositecomposite expressionsexpressions
LargestLargest setset,, potentiallypotentially infiniteinfiniteLastLastyearyear,, fivefiveminutesminutesafterafterJ.J. leftleft
LexicalLexical itemsitemsFiniteFinite setset
NowNow,, todaytoday,, yesterdayyesterday, , GrammaticalGrammatical categoriescategories: TENSES: TENSES
FiniteFinite setsetPresentPresent,,pastpast, ,
GrammaticalisationGrammaticalisation vs.vs. lexicalisationlexicalisation
GrammaticalisationGrammaticalisation:: IntegrationIntegration intointo thethe grammaticalgrammatical systemsystem of aof a languagelanguage ObligatoryObligatory expressionexpression MorphologicalMorphological boundnessboundness JoanJoanrunsrunsvs. Joan ranvs. Joan ran
LexicalisationLexicalisation:: IntegrationIntegration intointo thethe lexiconlexicon of aof a languagelanguage withoutwithout effecteffect onon thethe
grammaticalgrammatical structurestructure
NonNon--obligatoryobligatory FreeFree lexicallexical itemsitems NowNow,, yesterdayyesterday
BorderlineBorderline casescases, , continuumcontinuum:: Auxiliaries,Auxiliaries, preverbalpreverbal markersmarkers DiachronicDiachronic developmentsdevelopments
TenseTense
TenseTense relatesrelates thethe time oftime ofthethe situationsituationreferredreferred toto toto somesome otherother time,time, ususallyususally thethemomentmoment ofofspeakingspeaking. (. (ComrieComrie))
GrammaticalisedGrammaticalised locationlocation in timein timeCommonestCommonest tensestenses crosscross--linguisticallylinguistically::
PresentPresent:: situationsituation describeddescribed isis locatedlocated temporallytemporally asassimultaneoussimultaneous withwith thethe momentmoment ofofspeakingspeakingPastPast:: situationsituation describeddescribed isis locatedlocated priorprior toto thethe
momentmoment ofofspeakingspeakingFutureFuture:: situationsituation describeddescribed isis locatedlocated subsequentsubsequent toto
thethe momentmoment ofofspeakingspeaking
TenseTense isis almostalmost alwaysalways indicatedindicated onon thetheverbverbVerbVerb morphologymorphology GrammaticalGrammatical wordswords ((e.ge.g.. auxiliariesauxiliaries)) adjacentadjacent toto
thethe verbverb
TenseTense isis aa deicticdeictic systemsystem DeicticDeictic centrecentre ((usuallyusually presentpresent momentmoment ofof
speakingspeaking butbut cfcf.. belowbelow forfor relativerelative tensestenses))
AbsoluteAbsolute tensestenses vs. relativevs. relative tensestensesAbsoluteAbsolute tensestenses relaterelate thethe time oftime ofthethe
situationsituation describeddescribed toto thethe presentpresent momentmoment,,i.ei.e.. presentpresent momentmoment == deicticdeictic centrecentre E.gE.g.: Finite.: Finite verbverb formsforms in Englishin English
RelativeRelative tensestenses relaterelate thethe time of atime of a situationsituationtoto thethe time oftime ofsomesome otherother situationsituation E.gE.g.:.: NonNon--finitefinite verbverb formsforms in Englishin EnglishWhenWhenwalkingwalking downdownthetheroadroad, ., .
I IoftenoftenmeetmeetHarryHarry
I IoftenoftenmetmetHarryHarry
Basic andBasic and secondarysecondary meaningsmeaningsAA givengiven grammaticalgrammatical categorycategory maymay havehave
moremore thanthan oneone meaningmeaning: a: a basicbasicmeaningmeaningandandperipheralperipheralmeaningsmeaningsoror usesuses
PrototypePrototype theorytheoryExampleExample: English: English PastPast TenseTense
BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation priorprior totothethe momentmoment ofofspeakingspeaking
PeripheralPeripheral useuse:: counterfactualcounterfactual
IfIfyouyoudiddidthisthis, I, Iwouldwouldbebeveryveryhappyhappy(potential(potentialactionaction inin thethe presentpresent oror futurefuture))
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PeripheralPeripheral useuse:: politenesspolitenessI justI justwantedwantedtotoaskaskyouyou
PastPast timetime referencereference isis thethe basicbasic meaningmeaning ofofthethe PastPast TenseTense
PolitenessPoliteness isis aa secondarysecondary meaningmeaning
QuestionQuestion ofofdegreedegree ( >( > prototypeprototype))
MeaningMeaning andand implicatureimplicature
MeaningMeaning of aof a linguisticlinguistic itemitem vs.vs. implicaturesimplicatures ExampleExample:: JoanJoanusedusedto live in Londonto live in London
ImplicatureImplicature:: JoanJoandoesntdoesntlive in L.live in L. anymoreanymore BUT:BUT: J.J. usedusedto live in London, andto live in London, andsheshestillstilldoesdoesisis possiblepossible
ExampleExample::Joan hasJoan hasbrokenbrokenher legher leg
JoanJoanbrokebrokeher legher leg
JoanJoanhadhadbrokenbrokenher legher leg
Impression ofImpression ofmovementmovement backwardsbackwards in timein time DegreesDegrees ofofremotenessremoteness
TheThe apparentapparent degreedegree ofofremotenessremoteness isis illusionaryillusionary:: TheThe perfectperfect indicatesindicates currentcurrent relevancerelevance asas opposedopposed toto
simplesimple pastpast and:and: ItIt isis moremore likelylikely thatthat recentrecent eventsevents havehave currentcurrent
relevancerelevance ThusThus: out of: out ofcontextcontext interpretationinterpretation ofofpresentpresent perfectperfect asas
lessless remoteremote HoweverHowever,, nonnon--occurrenceoccurrence of timeof time adverbialsadverbials withwith pastpast
tensetense:: J.J. brokebrokeher legher legfivefiveminutesminutesagoago..
J. hasJ. hasbrokenbrokenher legher legitithappenedhappenedfivefiveweeksweeksagoago, and, andititstillstillhasnthasnthealedhealed
TensesTenses receivereceive particularparticular interpretationsinterpretations ininparticularparticular contextscontexts
TheThe difficultydifficulty toto distinguishdistinguish betweenbetween meaningmeaning andandimplicatureimplicature oftenoften impedesimpedes anan adequateadequatecharacterisationcharacterisation ofoftensestenses
PresentPresent tensetense
AbsoluteAbsolute tensetense BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation atat thethe presentpresent momentmoment
((cfcf.. diagramdiagram)) 100%100% simultaneitysimultaneity rarerare
PerformativePerformative sentencessentences:: IIpromisepromiseyouyou IInamenamethisthisshipship
SimultaneousSimultaneous reportsreports UsuallyUsually:: PresentPresent tensetense usedused toto referrefer toto situationssituations whichwhich
occupyoccupy aa muchmuch longerlonger periodperiod of timeof time thanthan thethe presentpresentmomentmoment,, butbut whichwhich includeinclude thethe presentpresent momentmoment TheTheEiffel TowerEiffel Towerstandsstandsin Parisin Paris TheTheauthorauthorisisworkingworkingononchapterchaptertwotwo
ImplicatureImplicature:: whetherwhether aa situationsituation isis partpart of a largerof a larger situationsituationextendingextending toto thethe pastpast oror futurefuture isis anan implicatureimplicature thatthat isisworkedworked out onout on thethe basisbasis ofofthethe contextcontext,, structurestructure ofofthethesentencesentence and/and/oror onesones knowledgeknowledge ofofthethe worldworld
ManyMany languageslanguages useuse thethe presentpresent tensetense toto referrefer totohabitualhabitual situationssituations JoanJoangoesgoestotoworkworkatateighteightoclockoclock((everyeverydayday))
Johanna steht (jeden Tag) um sieben Uhr auf.Johanna steht (jeden Tag) um sieben Uhr auf.
ContradictionContradiction toto definitiondefinition ofofbasicbasic meaningmeaning?? ReferenceReference to ato a habithabit andand notnot to ato a sequencesequence ofofsituationssituations TheThe habithabit doesdoes hold athold at thethe presentpresent momentmoment Habituality alsoHabituality also aspectualaspectual ((seesee belowbelow))
PresentPresent tensetense = universal= universal tensetense?? CowsCowseateatgrassgrass
Interpretation of universalInterpretation of universal truthtruth onon thethe basisbasis ofoffactorsfactors
beyondbeyond thethe basicbasic meaningmeaning ofofpresentpresent tensetense =>=>implicatureimplicature
PastPast tensetenseAbsoluteAbsolute tensetense BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation in timein time priorprior
toto thethe presentpresent momentmoment SituationSituation maymay occupyoccupy
aa singlesingle pointpoint AtAtsevensevenoclockoclockyesterdayyesterdayJ.J.promisedpromisedtotogivegivememetentenpoundspounds
anan extendedextended timetime periodperiod priorprior toto thethe presentpresent momentmoment J.J. livedlivedin Manchesterin Manchesterfromfrom1962 to 19821962 to 1982
oror thethe wholewhole periodperiod up toup to thethe presentpresent momentmoment Up toUp tothisthismomentmomentthisthisdiseasediseasewaswasincurableincurable
BasicBasic meaningmeaning doesdoes notnot includeinclude anyany referencereference totowhetherwhether thethe situationsituation continuescontinues toto thethe presentpresent ororeveneven intointo thethe futurefuture!!
ConversationalConversational implicatureimplicature thatthat pastpast tensetense doesdoesnotnot continuecontinue toto oror beyondbeyond thethe presentpresent
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FutureFuture tensetenseAbsoluteAbsolute tensetense BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation at a timeat a time subsequentsubsequent
toto thethe presentpresent momentmoment TenseTense oror moodmood??
MoodMood: a: a grammaticalgrammatical categorycategory whichwhich expressesexpresses thethe degreedegree oror kindkind ofofrealityreality asas perceivedperceived byby thethe speakerspeaker
SpeculativeSpeculative PredictionPrediction
RealisRealis vs.vs. irrealisirrealis ManyMany languageslanguages havehave aa clearclear grammaticalgrammatical distinctiondistinction
betweenbetween pastpast andand nonnon--pastpast ((i.ei.e.. presentpresent andand futurefuture timetimereferencereference))
DistinctionDistinction betweenbetween futurefuture andand nonnon--futurefuture isis lessless distinctdistinct;;inin particularparticular betweenbetween futurefuture andand presentpresent
InIn manymany languageslanguages,, presentpresent tensetense thethe normalnormal verbverbformform usedused toto indicateindicate futurefuture (German,(German, FinnishFinnish):):
German:German: ich gehe morgen vs. ich werde morgen gehenich gehe morgen vs. ich werde morgen gehen
AlsoAlso possiblepossible in Englishin English forfor scheduledscheduled situationssituations:: TheThetraintrainleavesleavestomorrowtomorrow
**ItItrainsrainstomorrowtomorrow
BinaryBinary tensetense systemssystems Future vs.Future vs. nonnon--futurefuture PastPast vs.vs. nonnon--pastpast
PresentPresent tensetense cancan alwaysalways bebe usedused withwith futurefuture timetime referencereference((FinnishFinnish, German), German)
SevereSevere constraintsconstraints onon thethe useuse ofofpresentpresent tensetense toto referrefer to timeto time(English)(English)
AbsoluteAbsolute--relativerelative tensetense SomeSome verbverb formsforms cancan combinecombine absolute timeabsolute time
locationlocation of aof a referencereference pointpoint withwith relative timerelative timelocationlocation of aof a situationsituation
AsAs withwith pure relativepure relative tensetense,, thethe referencereference pointpoint isisgivengiven byby thethe contextcontext
ExampleExample:: EnglishEnglishPluperfectPluperfectMeaningMeaning:: therethere isis aa referencereference point inpoint in thethe pastpast
((beforebefore thethe presentpresent momentmoment) and) and thethe situationsituationreferredreferred toto isis locatedlocated priorprior toto thatthat referencereference point;point;
establishmentestablishment ofofthethe referencereference pointpoint isis donedone bybythethe contextcontext
John had already left when Mary emerged from the cupboard
Reference pointSituation located prior to:
Interpretation as Interpretation as remoteremote pastpast isis ananimplicatureimplicature TemporalTemporal locationlocation doesdoes notnot havehave toto bebe remoteremoteThisThisparticleparticlehadhadbeenbeencreatedcreated22secondssecondsbeforebeforethisthis
otherotherparticleparticlewaswascreatedcreated1 second1 secondagoago..
InterveningIntervening referencereference pointpoint isis alwaysalways necessarynecessary**TheyTheyhadhadbuiltbuiltthetheGreat Wall of China.Great Wall of China.
SimilarSimilar:: FutureFutureperfectperfect ReferenceReference pointpoint isis inin thethe futurefuture ((anterioranterior toto
presentpresent momentmoment))
I will have finished this term paper by the end of this week.
Reference pointSi tuation located prior to:
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PerfectPerfect
FormalFormal similaritiessimilarities betweenbetween perfectperfect andand absoluteabsolute--relativerelative tensestenses
LocationLocation in timein time priorprior to ato a referencereference pointpoint whichwhich ininthisthis casecase isis simultaneoussimultaneous withwith thethe presentpresent momentmoment
ThusThus:: locateslocates aa situationsituation priorprior toto thethe presentpresentmomentmoment == pastpast tensetense
PerfectPerfect differsdiffers fromfrom pastpast butbut notnot withwith regardregard tototimetime locationlocation PerfectPerfect in Englishin English cannotcannot collocatecollocate withwith timetime
adverbialsadverbials whichwhich referrefer to ato a specificspecific pointpoint oror periodperiodinin thethe pastpast ((pastpast and and pluperfectpluperfect andand futurefutureperfectperfect))
ParticularityParticularity ofofthethe EnglishEnglish languagelanguage indicatesindicates thatthatperfectperfect constitutesconstitutes aa categorycategory apartapart fromfrom pastpast andandfromfrom absoluteabsolute--relativerelative tensestenses
Also:Also: crosscross--linguisticallylinguistically somesome languageslanguages maymay havehaveaa distinctdistinct perfectperfect categorycategory whilewhile lackinglacking aapluperfectpluperfect oror futurefuture perfectperfect
DiachronicDiachronic changeschanges affectingaffecting thethe perfectperfect maymay havehavenono repercussionsrepercussions onon thethe pluperfectpluperfect andand futurefutureperfectperfect German and French:German and French: perfectperfect takestakes overover functionsfunctions
originallyoriginally coveredcovered byby pastpast tensetense butbut pluperfectpluperfect andandfuturefuture perfectperfect remainremain
FrequentFrequent implicatureimplicature:: moremore recentrecent timetime referencereference
AspectAspect
AspectsAspects areare differentdifferent waysways ofofviewingviewing thetheinternalinternal temporaltemporal constituencyconstituency of aof asituationsituation. (. (ComrieComrie 1976:3)1976:3)
CharacterisationCharacterisation ofofthethe internalinternal structurestructure ofofanan eventevent Sue wasSue wasreadingreadingwhenwhenIIenteredentered..
SuzanneSuzannelisaitlisaitquantquantjentraijentrai..
Background vs.Background vs. eventeventNoNo referencereference toto thethe beginningbeginning oror thethe endend
vs.vs. presentationpresentation ofoftotalitytotality ofofthethe situationsituation
Suzanne was reading when I entered
PerfectivePerfective vs.vs. imperfectiveimperfectiveAspectAspect insistsinsists onon oppositionsoppositions;; forfor exampleexample::
PerfectivePerfective aspectaspect:: lookslooks atat thethe situationsituation fromfrom thetheoutsideoutside,, withoutwithout distinguishingdistinguishing anyany ofofthetheinternalinternal structurestructure ofofthethe situationsituationExternalExternal focusfocus
ImperfectiveImperfective aspectaspect:: lookslooks atat thethe situationsituation fromfromthethe insideinside,, isis cruciallycrucially concernedconcerned withwith thetheinternalinternal structurestructure ofofthethe situationsituation;; cancan looklookbackwardsbackwards towardstowards thethe start,start, oror looklookforwardforward totothethe end ofend ofthethe situationsituationInternalInternal focusfocus
time
Situationchange
Situationchange
boundary boundary
Situation
beginning endingduration
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ClassificationClassification ofofaspectualaspectual oppositionsoppositions
Perfective Imperfective
Habitual Continuous
Nonprogressive Progressive
Cf. Comrie (1976: 25)
Joan used to work hereJoan worked here
Joan was working
Joan worked here
The Eifel Tower stands in Paris
AspectAspect isis oftenoften usedused toto referrefer lexicallexical realisationsrealisations ofofthisthissemanticsemantic categorycategory as well as toas well as to grammaticalgrammatical categoriescategoriescorrespondingcorresponding toto thisthis semanticsemantic distinctiondistinction
Not allNot all aspectualaspectual distinctionsdistinctions areare expressedexpressed ororgrammaticalised in allgrammaticalised in all languageslanguages ExampleExample: English: English isis saidsaid to lackto lackthethe oppositionopposition perfectiveperfective vs.vs.
imperfectiveimperfective
DistinctionDistinction progressive vs.progressive vs. nonnon--progressiveprogressive realisedrealised withinwithin aa limitedlimitedsetset ofofverbsverbs ((i.ei.e.. nonnon--stativestative), and), and onlyonly ififhabitualhabitual meaningmeaning isisexcludedexcluded
ExampleExample: German: German basicallybasically lackslacks aa grammaticalgrammatical realisationrealisation ofofaspectaspect
SheShereadreadthethebookbook> Sie las das Buch> Sie las das Buch
SheShewaswasreadingreadingthethebookbook> Sie las im Buch> Sie las im Buch
MeaningMeaning and formand form
LexicalisationLexicalisation GermanGermangerade, im Buchgerade, im Buch
InflectionInflection SpanishSpanishleyleyvs.vs. lealea
PeriphrasisPeriphrasis EnglishEnglishsheshewaswasreadingreading
VeryVery oftenoften combinationcombination ofofaspectaspect andand tensetense::SpanishSpanish lealeacombinescombines imperfectiveimperfective meaningmeaning withwith
pastpast timetime referencereference
PerfectPerfect
DifferentDifferent typetype ofofaspectaspectNoNo informationinformation aboutabout thethe internalinternal temporaltemporal
constitutionconstitution of aof a situationsituationReferenceReference to ato a pastpast situationsituation whichwhich hashas
presentpresent relevancerelevanceIndicationIndication ofofcontinuingcontinuing presentpresent relevanerelevane ofof
aa pastpast situationsituation
AktionsartAktionsart1. A1. A distinctiondistinction ofofaspectaspect whichwhich isis
expressedexpressed lexicallylexically,, ratherrather thanthangrammaticallygrammatically:: eateat,, nibblenibble,, devourdevour..
2. A2. A distinctiondistinction ofofaspectaspect whichwhich isis expressedexpressedbyby derivationalderivational morphologymorphology ((e.ge.g.. RussianRussian).).
((TraskTrask,, DictionaryDictionaryofofGrammaticalGrammaticalTerms inTerms inLinguisticsLinguistics))
ExamplesExamples
beginning ending
Der Baum erblht Der Baum blht Der Baum verblht
ingressive progressive egressive
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AktionsartAktionsart
AA situationsituation maymay bebe eithereither staticstatic oror dynamicdynamic,,punctualpunctual oror durativedurative
NormallyNormally expressedexpressed inin thethe lexicallexical meaningmeaningofofthethe verbverb andand itsits argumentsarguments
AktionsartAktionsart categoriescategories
BestBest knownknown categorisationcategorisation byby ZenoZenoVendlerVendler(1967)(1967)
StatesStates:: lovelove,, hatehateActivitiesActivities:: runrun, walk, walk
AccomplishmentsAccomplishments:: runrunaamilemile,, readreadaabookbookAchievementsAchievements:: winwinaaracerace,, recognizerecognize
AktionsartAktionsart
TelicTelic vs.vs. atelicatelic JoanJoanisissingingsingingvs. Joanvs. Joanisissingingsingingaasongsong
Joan sang vs. JoanJoan sang vs. Joansungsungaasongsong..
WhenWhenIIcrossedcrossedthethebridgebridge, a man, a mandrowneddrowned..
WhenWhenIIcrossedcrossedthethebridgebridge, a man was, a man wasdrowningdrowning..
essen vs. aufessenessen vs. aufessen kmpfen vs. erkmpfenkmpfen vs. erkmpfen
AktionsartAktionsart
PunctualPunctual He wasHe wascoughingcoughing
Also:Also:flashflash
reachreach: *Joan: *Joanisisreachingreachingthethesummitsummit
WordWord formationformationStudentsStudents presentationpresentation
NegationNegationStudentsStudents presentationpresentation
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Word orderWord order
ConstituentConstituent order?order?Free vs.Free vs. strictstrict wordword orderorderDiachronicDiachronic developmentdevelopment
CaseCase vs.vs. wordword orderorder
Word orderWord order freedomfreedom?? ClauseClause externalexternal:: crossingcrossing clauseclause boundariesboundaries ClauseClause internalinternal:: withinwithin clauseclause boundariesboundaries
Word orderWord order
German hasGerman has clauseclause--internalinternal wordword orderordermovementmovement rulesrules whichwhich dodo notnot existexist ininEnglishEnglish
German and EnglishGerman and English havehave aa numbernumber ofofsimilarsimilar clauseclause--internalinternal movementmovement rulesrules butbutthesethese areare moremore productiveproductive in Germanin German
ExampleExample
{Peter} {gab} {zu Weihnachten} {dem{Peter} {gab} {zu Weihnachten} {demBruder} {das Buch}.Bruder} {das Buch}.
{Peter} {{Peter} {gavegave} {} {thethebookbook} {to his} {to hisbrotherbrother}}{{forforChristmas}.Christmas}.
2424 possiblepossible relativerelative orderingsorderings ofofthethe fourfourconstituentsconstituents??
DegreesDegrees ofofgrammaticalitygrammaticality??EffectsEffects of stress?of stress?
GermanGerman
EnglishEnglish* Peter* Peter gavegave forfor Christmas (to) hisChristmas (to) his brotherbrother
thethe bookbook..* To his* To his brotherbrother PeterPeter gavegave forfor ChristmasChristmas
thethe bookbook..* To his* To his brotherbrother gavegave thethe bookbookPeterPeter forfor
Christmas.Christmas.
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EnglishEnglish
ResultsResults
EffectEffect of stress?of stress? GermanGerman examplesexamples::
WithoutWithout stress: 8stress: 8 ungrammaticalungrammatical sentencessentences and 16and 16grammaticalgrammatical
WithWith appropriateappropriate stress, all 24stress, all 24 werewerejudgedjudged grammaticalgrammaticalin anin an experimentexperiment carriedcarried outout byby Bierwisch (1963)Bierwisch (1963)
VaryingVarying degreesdegrees ofofgrammaticalitygrammaticality EnglishEnglish examplesexamples::
OnlyOnly 1010 sentencessentencesjudgedjudged asas grammaticalgrammatical
FixedFixed wordword orderorder replacesreplaces morphologicallymorphologically encodedencodedgrammaticalgrammatical relationrelation PragmaticPragmatic consequencesconsequences ??
PragmaticPragmatic consequencesconsequences
AmbiguityAmbiguity of Englishof English constructionsconstructions withwith respectrespect totopragmaticpragmatic functionsfunctions
PragmaticPragmatic differencesdifferences areare syntacticallysyntactically encodedencoded ininGermanGerman
ThemeTheme ((oldold informationinformation) and) and RhemeRheme ((newnewinformationinformation))
ExamplesExamples:: Ich habe ein Kleid an den Kleiderhaken gehngt.Ich habe ein Kleid an den Kleiderhaken gehngt.
Ich habe an den Kleiderhaken ein Kleid gehngt.Ich habe an den Kleiderhaken ein Kleid gehngt. I hang aI hang adressdressononthetheclothesclothes--hookhook..
BasicBasic verbverb positionpositionTheThe order oforder ofsubjectsubject,, verbverb andand objectobject playsplays
aa majormajor rolerole inin thethe typologicaltypological classificationclassificationofoflanguageslanguages
MajorMajor contrastcontrast inin basicbasic sentencesentence structurestructurebetweenbetween English and GermanEnglish and German
EnglishEnglish basicbasic wordword order: SVOorder: SVOGerman:German: complexcomplex situationsituation withwith SVO inSVO in
mainmain clausesclauses and SOV inand SOV in subordinatesubordinateclausesclauses
English:English: examplesexamplesJohnJohnsawsawthetheboyboy(S V O)(S V O)
John hasJohn hasseenseenthetheboyboy(S(SAuxAuxV O)V O)
IIknowknowthatthatJohnJohnsawsawthetheboyboy(S V O)(S V O)
IIknowknowthatthatJohn hasJohn hasseenseenthetheboyboy(S(SAuxAuxV O)V O)
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German:German: examplesexamples
Johann sah den Jungen. (S V O)Johann sah den Jungen. (S V O)
Johann hat den Jungen gesehen.Johann hat den Jungen gesehen.(S(SAuxAuxO V)O V)
Ich wei, dassIch wei, dassJohann den Jungen sah.Johann den Jungen sah.
(S O V)(S O V)Ich wei, dassIch wei, dassJohann den Jungen gesehenJohann den Jungen gesehen
hat.hat. (S O V(S O VAuxAux))
DifferenceDifference betweenbetween finitefinite verbverb positionposition andandnonnon--finitefinite verbverb positionposition in Germanin German
InIn declarativedeclarative mainmain sentencessentences: finite: finite verbverboccupiesoccupies secondsecond positionposition,, otherother verbverb formsformsoccupyoccupy thethe finalfinal positionposition (verbale Klammer)(verbale Klammer)
InIn subordinatesubordinate clausesclauses,, thethe finitefinite verbverb formformoccupiesoccupies finalfinal positionposition,, followingfollowing allall otherother
verbverb formsforms
ExamplesExamples
JohannaJohannahattehattegestern in Leipzig ihremgestern in Leipzig ihremFreund das BuchFreund das Buchgegebengegeben..
, (weil) Johanna gestern in Leipzig ihrem, (weil) Johanna gestern in Leipzig ihremFreund das BuchFreund das Buchgegebengegebenhattehatte..
VerbVerb--finalfinal in Germanin German
GermanGerman assumedassumed toto bebe aa verbverb--finalfinal (SOV)(SOV)languagelanguage
ExamplesExamples withwith finite andfinite and nonnon--finitefinite verbverb formsforms , dass Johann den Jungen, dass Johann den Jungensahsah..
Der Mann, der die Frau vor einigen TagenDer Mann, der die Frau vor einigen Tagenbesuchtebesuchte, ,
Ich freue mich darauf, heute nach HauseIch freue mich darauf, heute nach Hausezu fahrenzu fahren..
Der Versuch, im Haus einen passenden SchlsselDer Versuch, im Haus einen passenden Schlsselzuzu
findenfinden
FrontingFronting rulerule forfor thethe finitefinite verbverb intointo secondsecond oror firstfirstpositionposition inin mainmain clausesclauses JohannJohannsahsahden Jungen.den Jungen.
SahSahJohann den Jungen?Johann den Jungen?
Mein VaterMein Vaterististvor einigen Tagen nach London gefahren.vor einigen Tagen nach London gefahren.
Vor einigen TagenVor einigen Tagenististmein Vater nach L. gefahren.mein Vater nach L. gefahren.
AbendsAbendskannkannich in der Wirtschaft ein Bier trinken.ich in der Wirtschaft ein Bier trinken.
NonNon--finitefinite verbverb formsforms inin mainmain clausesclauses remainremain ininfinalfinal positionposition Mein Vater ist vor einigen Tagen nach LondonMein Vater ist vor einigen Tagen nach Londongefahrengefahren..
Ist mein Vater vor einigen Tagen nach L.Ist mein Vater vor einigen Tagen nach L. gefahrengefahren??
VerbVerb--finalfinal in Englishin EnglishIn PDE,In PDE, wewe dodo notnot findfind verbverb--finalfinal sentencesentence
structuresstructuresDiachronicDiachronic developmentdevelopmentIn PDE,In PDE, verbverb--finalfinal patternspatterns inin compoundscompounds::
lionlion--hunterhunter,, quickquick--dryingdrying, ., .
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DifferencesDifferences inin informaticinformatic structurestructure
German:German: Ich wei, du bist ein intelligentes Mdchen.Ich wei, du bist ein intelligentes Mdchen.
Ich wei, dass du ein intelligentes MdchenIch wei, dass du ein intelligentes Mdchenbist.bist.
*Ich bin keineswegs berzeugt, du bist ein*Ich bin keineswegs berzeugt, du bist ein
intelligentes Mdchen.intelligentes Mdchen. Ich bin keineswegs berzeugt, dass du einIch bin keineswegs berzeugt, dass du ein
intelligentes Mdchen bist.intelligentes Mdchen bist.
Main vs.Main vs. subordinatesubordinate clauseclause
DifferencesDifferences inin informaticinformatic structurestructure
English:English: IIknowknow,, youyouarearean intelligentan intelligentgirlgirl..
*I am*I ambybynonomeansmeansconvincedconvinced,, youyouareareananintelligentintelligentgirlgirl..
IIknowknow((thatthat))youyouarearean intelligentan intelligentgirlgirl..
I amI ambybynonomeansmeansconvincedconvinced((thatthat))youyouareareananintelligentintelligentgirlgirl..
CommaComma intonationintonationGreaterGreater ambiguityambiguity in Englishin English
GermanGerman alternationsalternations
TheThe follwoingfollwoing alternationsalternations withoutwithout parallel inparallel inEnglish:English: Schliee mir ja heuteSchliee mir ja heuteabendabenddie Haustr.die Haustr.
Dass du mir ja heuteDass du mir ja heuteabendabenddie Haustr schliet.die Haustr schliet.
CloseClosethethefrontfrontdoordoorforformemethisthiseveningevening..
**ThatThatyouyoucloseclosethethefrontfrontdoordoorforformemethisthiseveningevening..
In German,In German, verbverb positionposition isis sufficientsufficient toto indicateindicate
thethe subordinatesubordinate statusstatus of aof a clauseclause andand thusthus totocarrycarry thethe associatedassociated pragmaticpragmatic meaningmeaning..
RaisingRaising structuresstructures
ClauseClause externalexternal movementsmovements SubjectSubject--toto--subjectsubject raisingraising SubjectSubject--toto objectobject raisingraising ObjectObject--toto--subjectsubject raisingraising ((toughtough movementmovement))
Joan seems ( to be ill).
It seems that Joan is ill.
SubjectSubject--toto--SubjectSubject raisingraising JoanJoanseemsseemstotobebeill.ill.TheThenoisenoiseseemsseemstotogetgeton heron hernervesnerves..
JoanJoanhappenshappenstotobebeill.ill.
TheThenoisenoisehappenshappenstotogetgeton heron hernervesnerves..
JoanJoancontinuedcontinuedtotobebeill.ill.
TheThenoisenoisecontinuedcontinuedtotogetgeton heron hernervesnerves..
JoanJoanceasedceasedtotobebeillill--
TheThenoisenoiseceasedceasedtotogetgeton heron hernervesnerves..
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Johanna scheint krank zu sein.Johanna scheint krank zu sein.
Der Lrm scheint sie aufzuregen.Der Lrm scheint sie aufzuregen.
*Johanna geschieht krank zu sein.*Johanna geschieht krank zu sein.
* Der* DerLmLmgeschieht sie aufzuregen.geschieht sie aufzuregen.
* Johanna fuhr weiter fort krank zu sein.* Johanna fuhr weiter fort krank zu sein.
anfangenanfangen
beginnenbeginnen
scheinenscheinen
SubjectSubject--toto--subjectsubject raisingraising:: summarysummary
ProductiveProductive in Englishin EnglishPossiblePossible withwith aa fairlyfairly largelarge classclass ofof
predicatespredicates in Englishin EnglishPossiblePossible withwith onlyonly aa fewfew predicatespredicates inin
GermanGerman
I believe Joan ( to be ill).
I believe that Joan is ill.
SubjectSubject--toto--objectobject raisingraising IIbelievebelieveJoan toJoan tobebeill.ill.IIbelievebelievethethefarmerfarmertotohavehavekilledkilled thethecowcow..IIunderstandunderstandhimhimtotobebestupid.stupid.
*Ich glaube Johanna krank zu*Ich glaube Johanna krank zusein.sein.*Ich glaube den Bauer die Kuh*Ich glaube den Bauer die Kuh
gettet zu haben.gettet zu haben.*Ich verstehe ihn dumm zu sein.*Ich verstehe ihn dumm zu sein.
SubjectSubject--toto--objectobject raisingraising:: summarysummaryFairlyFairly productiveproductive in Englishin EnglishPossiblePossible withwith aa comparativelycomparatively largelarge classclass ofof
predicatespredicates in Englishin EnglishNoNo tranlationtranlation equivalentsequivalents in Germanin German
Linguistics is easy (to study)
It is easy to study Linguistics.
ObjectObject--toto--subjectsubject raisingraising
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HeHeisiseasyeasytotoconvinceconvince..
LinguisticsLinguisticsisisboringboringtotostudystudy..
TheTheboyboyisiseasyeasytotohelphelp/ to/ toworkworkwithwith..
ThisThisbookbookisiseasyeasyforformemeto force Helena toto force Helena toreadread..
Er ist leicht zu berzeugen.Er ist leicht zu berzeugen.
* Linguistik ist langweilig zu studieren.* Linguistik ist langweilig zu studieren.
* Der Junge ist leicht zu helfen/ mit zu arbeiten.* Der Junge ist leicht zu helfen/ mit zu arbeiten. * Dieses Buch ist leicht fr mich Helena zu lesen* Dieses Buch ist leicht fr mich Helena zu lesen
zu zwingen.zu zwingen.
ObjectObject--toto--subjectsubject raisingraising:: summarysummary
ProductiveProductive in Englishin English withwith comparativelycomparativelylargelarge numbernumber ofofpossiblepossible triggerstriggers
In GermanIn German onlyonly applicableapplicable to ato a limitedlimiteddegreedegree leicht, einfach, schwer, schwierig, interessantleicht, einfach, schwer, schwierig, interessant
In English,In English, directdirect objectsobjects as well as andas well as andobliqueoblique NPsNPs cancan bebe raisedraised
In German,In German, onlyonly directdirect objectsobjects cancan bebe raisedraised
RaisingRaising structuresstructures:: summarysummary
MovementsMovements areare freerfreer in Englishin EnglishAllAll possiblepossible triggerstriggers in Germanin German constituteconstitute aa
subsetsubset ofofthethe possiblepossible triggerstriggers in Englishin EnglishClauseClause--externalexternal movementmovement isis freerfreer inin
EnglishEnglish