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Control Flow
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Data Conversion
Promotion happens automatically when operators in expressions convert their operands
For example, if sum is a float and count is an int, the value of count is converted to a floating point value to perform the following calculation:
result = sum / count;
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Casting
Casting is the most powerful, and dangerous, technique for conversion
Both widening and narrowing conversions can be accomplished by explicitly casting a value
To cast, the type is put in parentheses in front of the value being converted
For example, if total and count are integers, but we want a floating point result when dividing them, we can cast total:
result = (float) total / count;
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Reading Input
Programs generally need input on which to operate
The Scanner class provides convenient methods for reading input values of various types
A Scanner object can be set up to read input from various sources, including from the user typing the values on the keyboard
Keyboard input is represented by the System.in object
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Reading Input The following line allows you to use the standard
library Scanner class in statements in your class:
import java.util.Scanner;
The following line creates a Scanner object that reads from the keyboard:
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
The new operator creates the Scanner object
Once created, the Scanner object can be used to invoke various input methods, such as:
answer = scan.nextLine();
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Reading Input
The Scanner class is part of the java.util class library and must be imported into a program to be used
The nextLine method reads all of the input until the end of the line is found
The details of object creation and class libraries will be discussed later
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Input Tokens
Unless specified otherwise, white space is used to separate the elements (called tokens) of the input
White space includes space characters, tabs, new line characters
The next method of the Scanner class reads the next input token and returns it as a String
Methods such as nextInt and nextDouble read data of particular types
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Control Flow
Up until now, all of our programs just ran sequentially through a sequence of steps
Each statement did something and then continued to the next statement in sequence
To make decisions while solving a quadratic equation, we need to control the flow of the execution of statements in our program
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Boolean Expressions and If
Flow of Control / Conditional Statements The if Statement Logical Operators The else Clause Block statements Nested if statements
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Flow of Control Unless specified otherwise, the order of statement
execution through a method is linear:
one statement after another in sequence
Some programming statements allow us to:
decide whether or not to execute a particular statement
execute a statement over and over, repetitively
These decisions are based on boolean expressions (or conditions) that evaluate to true or false
The order of statement execution is called the flow of control
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Conditional Statements
A conditional statement lets us choose which statement will be executed next
Therefore they are sometimes called selection statements
Conditional statements give us the power to make basic decisions
The Java conditional statements are the:
if statement if-else statement switch statement
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The if Statement The if statement has the following syntax:
if ( condition ) statement;
if is a Javareserved word
The condition must be aboolean expression. It mustevaluate to either true or false.
If the condition is true, the statement is executed.If it is false, the statement is skipped.
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Conditions/Boolean Expressions
A condition is often obtained using an equality operator and/or relational operator which create boolean expressions that return boolean results:
== equal to!= not equal to< less than> greater than<= less than or equal to>= greater than or equal to
Note the difference between the equality operator (==) and the assignment operator (=)
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The if Statement
An example of an if statement:
First the condition is evaluated -- the value of sum is either greater than the value of MAX, or it is not
If the condition is true, the assignment statement is executed -- if it isn’t, it is skipped.
Either way, the call to println is executed next
if (sum > MAX) delta = sum - MAX;System.out.println ("The sum is " + sum);
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Indentation
The statement controlled by the if statement is indented to indicate that relationship
The use of a consistent indentation style makes a program easier to read and understand
Although it makes no difference to the compiler, proper indentation is crucial to human readers
"Always code as if the person who ends up maintaining your code will be a violent psychopath who knows where you live."
-- Martin Golding
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Logical Operators The following logical operators can also be used in
boolean expressions:
! Logical NOT&& Logical AND|| Logical OR
They operate on boolean operands and produce boolean results Logical NOT is a unary operator (it operates on one
operand)
Logical AND and logical OR are binary operators (each operates on two operands)
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Logical NOT
The logical NOT operation is also called logical negation or logical complement
If some boolean condition a is true, then !a is false; If a is false, then !a is true Logical operations can be shown with a truth table
a !a
true false
false true
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Logical AND and Logical OR
The logical AND expression
a && b
is true if both a and b are true, and false otherwise
The logical OR expression
a || b
is true if a or b or both are true, and false otherwise
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Logical Operators
A truth table shows all possible true-false combinations of the terms
Since && and || each have two operands, there are four possible combinations of conditions a and b
a b a && b a || b
true true true true
true false false true
false true false true
false false false false
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Short-Circuited Operators
The processing of logical AND and logical OR is “short-circuited”
If the left operand is sufficient to determine the result, the right operand is not evaluated
This coding technique must be used carefully
if (count != 0 && total/count > MAX) System.out.println ("Testing…");
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The if-else Statement
An else clause can be added to an if statement to make an if-else statement
If the condition is true, statement1 is executed; if the condition is false, statement2 is executed
One or the other will be executed, but not both
if ( condition ) statement1;else statement2;
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Indentation Revisited
Remember that indentation is for the human reader and is ignored by the Java compiler
if (total > MAX) System.out.println ("Error!!"); errorCount++;
Despite what is implied by the indentation, the increment will occur whether the if condition is true or not, as follows:
if (total > MAX) System.out.println ("Error!!");errorCount++;
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Block Statements
Several statements can be grouped into a block statement delimited by braces
A block statement can be used wherever a statement is called for in the Java syntax
if (total > MAX){ System.out.println ("Error!!"); errorCount++;} Now the increment will only occur
when the if condition is true
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Block Statements
In an if-else statement, the if portion, or the else portion, or both, could be block statements
if (total > MAX){ System.out.println ("Error!!"); errorCount++;}else{ System.out.println ("Total: " + total); current = total*2;}
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The Conditional Operator
Java has a conditional operator that uses a boolean condition to determine which of two expressions is evaluated
Its syntax is:
condition ? expression1 : expression2
If the condition is true, expression1 is evaluated; if it is false, expression2 is evaluated
The value of the entire conditional operator is the value of the selected expression
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The Conditional Operator
The conditional operator is similar to an if-else statement, except that it is an expression that returns a single value
For example:
larger = ((num1 > num2) ? num1 : num2);
If num1 is greater than num2, then num1 is assigned to larger; otherwise, num2 is assigned to larger
The conditional operator is ternary because it requires three operands: a condition and two alternative values
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Nested if Statements
The statement executed as a result of an if statement or an else clause can be another if statement
These are called nested if statements An else clause is matched to the last unmatched if
(no matter what the indentation implies) Braces can be used to specify the if statement to
which an else clause belongs
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Data Comparisons and Switch Data Comparisons Switch
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Comparing Data
When comparing data using boolean expressions, it's important to understand the nuances of certain data types
Let's examine some key situations:
Comparing floating point values for equality Comparing characters Comparing strings (alphabetical order) Comparing object vs. comparing object references
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Comparing Float Values
You should rarely use the equality operator (==) when comparing two floating point values (float or double)
Two floating point values are equal only if their underlying binary representations match exactly
Computations often result in slight differences that may be irrelevant
In many situations, you might consider two floating point numbers to be "close enough" even if they aren't exactly equal
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Comparing Float Values
To determine the equality of two floats, you may want to use the following technique:
If the absolute value of the difference between the two floating point values is less than the tolerance, they are considered to be equal
The tolerance could be set to any appropriate level, such as 0.000001
if (Math.abs(f1 - f2) < TOLERANCE) System.out.println ("Essentially equal");
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Comparing Characters
As we've discussed, Java character data is based on the Unicode character set
Unicode assigns a particular numeric value to each character and this creates an ordering of characters
We can use relational operators on character data based on this ordering
For example, the character ‘A' is less than the character 'J' because it comes before it in the Unicode character set
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Comparing Characters
In Unicode, the digit characters (0-9) are contiguous and in order of their numerical value
Likewise, the uppercase letters (A-Z) and lowercase letters (a-z) are contiguous and in alphabetical order
Characters Unicode Values
0 – 9 48 through 57
A – Z 65 through 90
a – z 97 through 122
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Comparing Characters Therefore, if we want to base a decision in our
program on whether a character is a digit or not, we can use the following code:
if (character >= ‘0’ && character <= ‘9’)System.out.println (“Yes, it’s a digit!”);
We can also check for a valid upper case alphabetic character as follows:
if (character >= ‘A’ && character <= ‘Z’)System.out.println (“It’s a capital letter!”);
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Comparing Strings Remember that in Java a string is an object
We cannot use the == operator to determine if the values of two strings are identical (character by character)
The equals method can be called with strings to determine if two strings contain exactly the same characters in the same order
The equals method returns a boolean result
if (name1.equals(name2)) System.out.println ("Same name");
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Comparing Strings
We cannot use the relational operators to compare strings
The String class contains a method called compareTo to determine if one string comes before another
A call to name1.compareTo(name2)
returns zero if name1 and name2 are equal (contain the same characters)
returns a negative value if name1 is less than name2
returns a positive value if name1 is greater than name2
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Comparing Strings
if (name1.compareTo(name2) < 0) System.out.println (name1 + "comes first");else if (name1.compareTo(name2) == 0) System.out.println ("Same name"); else System.out.println (name2 + "comes first");
Because comparing characters and strings is based on a character set, it is called a lexicographic ordering
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Lexicographic Ordering
Lexicographic ordering is not strictly alphabetical with mixed uppercase and lowercase characters
For example, the string "Great" comes before the string "fantastic" because in Unicode the uppercase letters have lower values than the lowercase letters. Therefore, ‘G’ is less than ‘f’
Also, short strings come before longer strings with the same prefix (lexicographically)
Therefore "book" comes before "bookcase"
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The switch Statement
The switch statement provides another way to decide which statement to execute next
The switch statement evaluates an integral expression (int or char only), then attempts to match the result to one of several possible cases
Each case contains a value and a statement list
The flow of control transfers to the statement list associated with the first case value that matches
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The switch Statement
The general syntax of a switch statement is:
switch ( expression ){ case value1 : statement-list1 case value2 : statement-list2 case value3 : statement-list3 case ...
}
switchandcaseare
reservedwords
If expressionmatches value2,control jumpsto here
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The switch Statement
Often a break statement is used as the last statement in each case's statement list
A break statement causes control to transfer to the end of the switch statement
If a break statement is not used, the flow of control will continue into the next case
Sometimes this may be appropriate, but often we only want to execute the statements associated with one case
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The switch Statement
switch (option){ case 'A': aCount++; break; case 'B': bCount++; break; case 'C': cCount++; break;}
An example of a switch statement:
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The switch Statement
A switch statement can have an optional default case
The default case has no associated value and simply uses the reserved word default
If there is a default case and no other value matches, control will transfer to the default statement list
If there is no default case and no other value matches, control falls through to the statement after the switch without executing any statements
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The switch Statement
switch (option){ case 'A': aCount++; break; case 'B': bCount++; break; default: errorCount++; break;}
An example of a switch statement using default:
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Loops – While, Do, For
Repetition Statements While Do For Break and Continue in Loops
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Repetition Statements Repetition statements allow us to execute a statement
or a block of statements multiple times Often they are referred to as loops Like conditional statements, they are controlled by
boolean expressions Java has three kinds of repetition statements:
the while loop the do loop the for loop
The programmer should choose the right kind of loop for the situation
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The while Statement A while statement has the following syntax:
If the condition is true, the statement is executed
Then the condition is evaluated again, and if it is still true, the statement is executed again
The statement is executed repeatedly until the condition becomes false
while ( condition ) statement;
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The while Statement An example of a while statement:
If the condition of a while loop is false initially, the statement is never executed
Therefore, the body of a while loop will execute zero or more times
int count = 1;while (count <= 5){ System.out.println (count); count++;}
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The while Statement
Let's look at some examples of loop processing A loop can be used to maintain a running sum A sentinel value is a special input value that
represents the end of input A loop can also be used for input validation,
making a program more robust
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Infinite Loops
Executing the statements in the body of a while loop must eventually make the condition false
If not, it is called an infinite loop, which will execute until the user interrupts the program
This is a common logical error You should always double check the logic of a
program to ensure that your loops will terminate
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Infinite Loops
An example of an infinite loop:
This loop will continue executing until the user externally interrupts the program
int count = 1;while (count <= 25){ System.out.println (count); // Note: no update for the value of count!!}
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Nested Loops
Similar to nested if statements, loops can be nested as well
That is, the body of a loop can contain another loop
For each iteration of the outer loop, the inner loop iterates completely
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Nested Loops
How many times will the string "Here" be printed?
count1 = 1;while (count1 <= 10){ count2 = 1; while (count2 <= 20) { System.out.println ("Here"); count2++; } count1++;}
10 * 20 = 200
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The do Statement A do statement has the following syntax:
The statement is executed once initially, and then the condition is evaluated
The statement is executed repeatedly until the condition becomes false
do{ statement;}while (condition );
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The do Statement An example of a do loop:
The body of a do loop executes one or more times (Note: at least once)
Exer: write a program to Reverse a Number
int count = 0;do{ count++; System.out.println (count);} while (count < 5);
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The for Statement
A for statement has the following syntax:
for ( initialization ; condition ; increment ) statement;
The initializationis executed once
before the loop begins
The statement isexecuted until the
condition becomes false
The increment portion is executed at the end of each
iteration
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The for Statement
A for loop is functionally equivalent to the following while loop structure:
initialization;while ( condition ){ statement; increment;}
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The for Statement
An example of a for loop:
The initialization section can be used to declare a variable
Like a while loop, the condition of a for loop is tested prior to executing the loop
Therefore, the body of a for loop will execute zero or more times
for (int count=1; count <= 5; count++) System.out.println (count);
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The for Statement
The increment section can perform any calculation
A for loop is well suited for executing the body a specific number of times that can be calculated or determined in advance
for (int num=100; num > 0; num -= 5) System.out.println (num);
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The for Statement
Each expression in a for statement is optional If the initialization is left out, no initialization is
performed If the condition is left out, it is always considered to be
true, and therefore creates an infinite loop If the increment is left out, no increment operation is
performed “Forever” can be written as:
for (;;) {body;}
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Break and Continue in Loops
The break statement causes execution to “break” out of the repetitive loop execution (goes to just outside the loop’s closing “}”)
The continue statement causes execution to “continue” at the end of this pass of a loop (goes to just inside the loop’s closing “}”)
Both are discouraged because an alternative way of coding the logic is usually available
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Break and Continue in Loops
Bad practice to use an infinite loop with only break statements to exit the loop:while (true)
{
if (normal exit condition)
break;
// body of loop
}
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Break and Continue in Loops
Accepted practice for a loop with a normal exit condition to use break statements for exiting the loop on error conditions:while (normal exit condition){
if (some error condition) {// print an error message e.g.
break; } // rest of body of loop
}