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Coping and Resilience
Leslie H. Wind, Ph.D
Mary Marshall, LCSW
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Federal SponsorsNIMH
National Institute of Mental Health
NINR
National Institute of Nursing Research
SAMHSA
Substance Abuse
And
Mental Health Services Administration
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Principal Investigators
Betty Pfefferbaum, MD, JD
University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center
Alan M. Steinberg, PhD
University of California, Los Angeles
Robert S. Pynoos, MD, MPH
University of California, Los Angeles
John Fairbank, PhD
Duke University
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Learning Objectives
After completing this module you will be able to:
• Identify and define key concepts and models related to stress, coping, and resilience
• Understand the transactional nature of coping and resilience processes
• Differentiate key culturally-based aspects of coping and resilience
• Discuss coping and resilience issues specific to youth exposed to mass level traumatic events
• Identify gaps in knowledge and research needs
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What is Stress?
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Stress Terminology
• Stress: The effect of anything in life to which people must adjust. Stress requires us to adjust our attention and behavior and makes demands on our energy.
• Stressor: Anything that has the effect of causing stress. • Stress Capacity: The amount of stress a person can carry, since
each person has some stress in their lives.
• Stress Load: This refers to the amount, or quantity, of stress a person has in their lives.
Red Cross, 2002
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Types of Stress Reactions
• Physiological
• Emotional
• Cognitive
• Behavioral
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Stress within a Disaster Context• Disasters are overwhelming, traumatic
events
• Children’s reactions vary by age, developmental maturity, and experience
• Children’s reactions likely vary by stage of recovery
• Children’s needs may not be met
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Reactions: Children 1-5
• Helplessness and passivity
• Generalized fear• Heightened arousal• Cognitive confusion• Difficulty talking about
event• Sleep disturbance• Separation
fears/clinging
• Regressive symptoms• Anxiety about death• Grief• Somatic symptoms• Startle response to loud
or unusual noises• Irritability
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Reactions: 6-11 Years
• Feelings of responsibility/guilt
• Traumatic play and retelling
• Sleep disturbance• Anger/aggression• Change in behavior,
mood, personality• Somatic symptoms• Fear and anxiety
• Regression• Separation anxiety• Withdrawal• Loss of interest in
activities• Magical thinking• Loss of ability to
concentrate• School avoidance and
decline in school performance
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Reactions: 12-18 Years
• Self-consciousness• Life-threatening
reenactment• Abrupt shift in
relationships• Depression• Social withdrawal
• Sleep/eating disturbances
• Decline in school performance
• Rebellion• Accident proneness• Wish for revenge and
action-oriented responses
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Children in Disaster
“My daughter was small then, but she has a certain hostility toward everyone. She seems to want to hurt everyone…She liked to play with dolls before the flood, but now she punches out their eyes and pulls their arms off. She calls her daddy on her play phone now when it rains and tells him to come get her because the dam is breaking.” Everything in Its Path by Kai T. Erikson
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What is Coping?
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Defining Coping
Constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of a person (Folkman & Lazarus, 1984, p. 141)
…anything people do to adjust to the challenges and demands of stress… any adjustments made to reduce the negative impact of stress (Red Cross: Community-based Psychological Support, p. 87)
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Think About Kids and Coping
What are some of the ways you see
children and adolescents attempt to cope
with extremely stressful situations?
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Conceptualizing Coping Strategies
• Biological/physiological – fight or flight
• Cognitive – how we think about the situation
• Behavioral – behavior related to mental process
• Learned – strategies learned from modeling/observation
• Intentioned – voluntary/involuntary
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Lazarus’ Model of Stress and Coping
Antecedents
Individual goals, goal hierarchies, beliefs about self and world, Personal resources
Environment
Harms/losses, threats/challenges, benefits
Person-environment relationship
Appraisal Relational meaning
Coping
Revised relational meaning
Emotions, Functioning,Morale, Health
Processes Outcomes
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Transactional Model of Coping
Core Assumptions:• Stressful experiences are construed as
person-environment transactions• Transactions depend on the impact of the
external stressor• Impact is mediated individual/environmental
antecedents, by the person’s repeated appraisal of the stressor, and coping responses
• The system changes moment to moment Lazarus, 1999
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Transactional Model Concepts
• Primary appraisal• Secondary appraisal• Coping efforts• Problem
management• Emotional
Regulation
• Meaning-based coping
• Outcomes of coping• Dispositional coping
styles• Optimism• Information seeking Glanz, Rimer, & Lewis, 2002
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Emotion Focused CopingCoping efforts that are directed toward
regulating emotional states: -- Denial/avoidance -- Distraction or minimization -- Wishful thinking -- Self-control of feelings -- Seeking meaning -- Self-blame -- Expressing/sharing feelings
Folkman & Lazarus, 1984 Compas & Epping, 1993
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Problem-Focused Coping
Efforts to act on the source of stress to changethe person, the environment, or the relationshipbetween the two:
1. Planned problem solving 2. Confrontation
Compas & Epping, 1993
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Responses to Stress Model Voluntary Strategies
1. Primary Control Coping - Attempts to modify stressful problem or emotion (problem solving)
2. Secondary Control Coping – Attempts to adapt via cognition (cognitive restructuring)
3. Disengagement Coping - Attempts to redirect attention away from the stressor or emotional reaction (denial, wishful thinking)
Wadsworth et al, 2004
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Responses to Stress Model
Involuntary Strategies
4. Involuntary Engagement – Directed toward the stressor or their emotional reactions (arousal,
rumination, impulsive action)
5. Involuntary Disengagement – Directed away from the stressor or their emotional reactions (emotional numbing, escape)
Wadsworth et al, 2004
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Responses to Stress Model
• Emphasizes developmental changes in nature of stress, internal/external constraints limiting coping processes, and a complex interplay between voluntary and involuntary responses to stress.
• Involuntary responses reflect individual differences in temperament, over-learned and automatic responses
• Assumes an increase in secondary control coping and emotion-focused coping and decreases in disengagement with maturity
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Motivational Model of Coping
Innate Psychological Needs
• Relatedness• Competence• Autonomy
Universal Stressors
• Neglect• Chaos• Coercion
Skinner & Wellborn, 1997
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Motivational Model: Self-System Processes
• Children’s self-efficacy may be challenged by chaotic social contexts.
• Self-efficacy beliefs lead to interpretations re competence
• Autonomy vs. coercion = need to experience self as free to choose vs. pressure to behavior a certain way
• Neglect = social interactions that undermine the need for relatedness
• Self-system processes become either source of distress or resource in event of trauma
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The Community Stress Prevention Model
Six dimensions central to coping with adversity:
• Beliefs/Values – relies on values to cope• Affect – emotion expression as coping mechanism• Social – seeking support/relationships• Imagination – creative expression to cope• Cognitive – need honest dialogue & guidance• Physiological – physical activity as coping Lahad, Shacham, & Niv, 2000
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Summarizing Models of Coping
• Transactional
• Motivational
• Applied Psychology
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Common Aspects of Coping• Strategies/Patterns: 4 common types
• Flexibility: # strategies
• Effectiveness: How well child thinks it worked
• Self-efficacy: Sense of competence
• Coping Assistance: External resources (formal and informal)
• Coping Resources: Individual characteristics
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Coping in Young Children
• Maturation results in developmental stages marked by capacity for self-control
• Process using internal/external resources to manage demands of environment
Zeitlin & Williamson, 1994
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Coping in Young Children
• Step 1: Determine meaning of event
• Step 2: Develop an action plan
• Step 3: Implement coping effort
• Step 4: Evaluation effectiveness of
outcome
Zeitlin & Williamson, 1994
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Evaluating Young Children’s Coping
• Behavior is appropriate for situation
• Behavior is appropriate developmentally
• Behavior enables child to achieve objectives
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What We Know About Development and Coping
• Emotion-focused – increases with age
• Problem-solving skills – mixed findings
• Negative appraisal varies in dimensionality
• Avoidant physical/cognitive responses increase w/age
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More on Development
• Attention – increases with age
• Sense of competence – younger over-estimate; older perceive competence as enduring
• Locus of control – increases with age
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What We Know About Gender and Coping
• Mixed findings overall
• Findings vary by context
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Coping and Culture
• Connection between culture and coping
• Individualism vs. collectivism
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Coping and Cultural Beliefs
World view is culturally based:• Utility of effort• Religious beliefs• Belief in an entity view of the world• Belief in a benevolent purpose for events• Values• Belief in the ubiquity of change• Belief in the utility of personal preparation
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Model of Collectivistic Coping
• Family support
• Respect for authority figures
• Intracultural coping
• Relational universality
• Forbearance
• Social activity
• FatalismChen in Wong & Wong, 2006
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More on Culture…..
• Discrimination and stigma erode resilience
• Gender constraints are problematic• Guilt and shame• Meaning• Mastery and control• Help-seeking, stigma, and mistrust
Boss, 2006; Norris & Alegria, 2006
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Child Coping within a Cultural Context
• Coping strategies vary across groups
• Ethnicity x Context = Coping
• Avoidant coping = adaptive and maladaptive
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What is Resilience?
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Defining Resilience
A pattern of positive adaptation in thecontext of past or present adversity
Wright & Masten, 2005
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Judging Adaptation
1. There has been a significant threat or risk to the development or adaptation of the individual; and
2. The individual’s functioning is satisfactory according to selected criteria.
Wright & Masten, 2005
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Key Concepts in Resilience Research
• Adversity: Environmental conditions that interfere with/threaten the accomplishment of age-appropriate developmental tasks
• Risk: An elevated probability of an undesirable outcome
• Risk Factor: A measurable characteristic in a group of individuals or their situation that predicts negative outcome on a specific criteria
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More Key Concepts
• Cumulative Risk: Increased risk due to (a) multiple risk factors present; (b) multiple occurrences of same risk factor; (c) accumulating effects of ongoing adversity
• Vulnerability: Individual susceptibility to undesirable outcomes
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More Key Concepts
• Proximal Risk: Risk factors experienced directly by the child
• Distal Risk: Risk related to a child’s ecological context, but mediated via proximal processes
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More Key Concepts
• Asset/Resource/Compensatory Factor: A measurable characteristic in a group of individuals or their situation that predicts general/specific positive outcomes
• Protective Factor: Quality of a person/context or their interaction that predicts better outcomes
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More Key Concepts
• Cumulative Protection: Presence of multiple protective factors
• Psychosocial Competence: The adaptive use of personal and contextual resources to accomplish developmental tasks
• Developmental Tasks: Expectations of a society for child’s accomplishments according to stage of development
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Assumptions Related to Resilience Concepts
• Children may demonstrate resilience at one point in life and not at another;
• Children may demonstrate resilience in only some aspects of life;
• There are linkages among the multiple domains of adaptation, positive and negative
Wright & Masten, 2005
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Risks Pile Up
• Risk factors often pile up
• Transitions (divorce, school entry, leaving home, war) pile risks on children within a short timeframe
• Emotional, behavioral, educational, and health problems increase as total risk level increases
• Developmental cascades can occur (one problem leads to another)
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Correlates of Resilience: Child Characteristics
• Social/adaptable temperament
• Strong cognitive abilities
• Effective emotional and behavioral regulation strategies
• Positive view of self
• Positive outlook• Faith/sense of
meaning in life• Characteristics
valued by society and self (talents, humor, appearance)
Masten, 2001
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Family Resilience
“…coping and adaptational processes in the family as a functional unit”
Walsh, 2006, p. 15
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Principles of Family Resilience
• Individual resilience is best understood and fostered in the context of the family and larger social world, as a mutual interaction of individual, family, socio-cultural, and institutional influences
• Crisis events and persistent stresses affect the whole family, posing risks not only for individual dysfunction, but for relational conflict and family breakdown;
Walsh, 2006
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Principles of Family Resilience
• Family processes mediate the impact of stress for all its members and relationships;
• Protective processes foster resilience by buffering stress and facilitating adaptation;
• Maladaptive responses increase vulnerability and risks for individual and relational distress;
• All individuals and families have the potential for greater resilience
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Three Keys to Family Resilience
• Family belief systems
• Organizational patterns
• Communication processes Walsh,2006
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Family Belief Systems
• Making meaning of adversity – sense of coherence
• Positive outlook
• Transcendence and spirituality
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Organizational Patterns
• Flexibility – Capacity for change
• Connectedness/Cohesion – emotional/structural bonding
• Social and economic resources – Extended networks
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Communication Processes
• Clarity – clear communication
• Open emotional expression – trust, emotional interaction
• Collaborative problem solving – conflict management
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Correlates of Resilience: Family Characteristics
• Stable/supportive home environment
• Parents involved in child’s education and activities
• Parents have same characteristics as child resilience correlates
• Socioeconomic advantages
• Postsecondary education of parents
• Faith and religious affiliations
Masten, 2001
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Family Processes in Coping
Family members:
• can be resources • can present impediments • are models
Compas & Epping, 1993
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Correlates of Resilience:Community Characteristics
• Good quality neighborhood
• Effective schools
• Employment opportunities for parents/teens
• Good public health care
• Access to emergency services
• Connections to caring adult mentors and pro-social peer associations
Masten, 2001
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Adaptive Systems Facilitating Development
• Attachment relationships
• Moral and ethical development
• Self-regulatory systems
• Mastery and motivational systems
• Neurobehavioral and information-processing systems
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Stability and Change in Adaptation
• Complex interactions of youth with parents, peers, and other adults in home, neighborhood, schools, and workplace impact outcomes
• Critical turning points correspond to developmental challenges
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Culture and Resilience
Within the cultural context:
• Extended family networks• Religious organizations• Other social systems
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Culturally Relevant Risk and Protective Factors
• Socioeconomic status
• Social support
• Prejudice and discrimination
• Acculturation stress
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Resilience and Disaster• The nature of the threat must be considered
• Developmental timing influences reactions
• Child experiences/responses of children are influenced by family, peer, and school functioning, particularly by people to whom children are attached
• Family, peers, and larger systems influenced by perceptions of the safety of other system members
Masten & Obradovic, 2007
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What Do We Know Within the Disaster Context?
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Disaster Related Outcomes
• Statistics are unavailable on number of children/adolescents impacted by disaster
• Symptoms are similar across disasters
• Anxiety disorders, depression, behavioral disorders are most commonly reported post-disaster problems
• PTS: 28-50% after terrorism, hurricanes
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Factors Associated with Stress-Related Outcomes
• Exposure
• Demographics
• Preexisting psychosocial factors
• Post-disaster recovery environment
La Greca & Prinstein, 2002
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Predicting Children’s Reaction to Disaster
Traumatic Exposure
Preexisting ChildCharacteristics
Coping Efforts
Post Disaster Recovery Environment
Major LifeEvents
SocialSupport
Functioning
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What We Know about Disasters: Coping Strategies
• Negative strategies = higher PTSD, depression
• Negative self-attribution and guilt = higher PTSD
• Higher PTSD, depression = use more strategies
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More on Coping Strategies
• Findings vary re most common
• Some strategies associated with symptoms; some not
• Some strategies are context specific
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What We Know Related to Disasters: Gender
• Girls use affective coping and social support more than boys
• Adolescent girls use more problem solving; boys use more emotional numbing
• Some studies find no gender differences
• Girls have higher rates of posttraumatic symptoms
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What We Know Related to Disasters: Age
• Adolescent girls who use primary control coping have less anxiety
• Involuntary disengagement in adolescents associated with more anxiety
• Younger children: Wishful thinking, positive coping, social withdrawal, blame-anger
• Adolescents: Distraction, avoidance, active coping, support coping
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What We Know Related to Disasters: Previous Trauma
• No difference in strategy effectiveness
• More previous trauma = greater perception of effectiveness of coping
• More previous trauma = use more strategies
• Associated with use of active coping strategies
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What We Know Related to Disasters: Culture
• Strategy usage
• Acculturation and PTSD for African Americans
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What We Know Related to Disasters: Self-Efficacy
One Month Post-Event• Perception of life threat • Depression
Three Months Post-Event• Children’s ability to cope at T1 most predictive
of coping at T2**• Family communication about event
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What We Know Related to Disasters: Resources
• Support seeking = fewer symptoms
• Assistance with distraction and emotional processing = more PTSD
• Parents provide most help in roles and routines, social support
• Friends help more with emotional processing
• Social withdrawal unrelated to coping assistance
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WHAT DO WE NEED TO KNOW?
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Future Research
• What factors influence coping and resilience in children and families within a disaster context?
• By what processes do they interact in producing psychosocial outcomes?
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Factors Influencing Psychosocial Outcomes
• Need to continue development of explanatory models
• Differentiate predictors by type of disaster, development, culture, and time
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Challenges to Understanding Coping within a Disaster Context
• Disasters are unpredictable
• Lack of clarity and agreement about nature of coping in children
• Lack of consensus on definitions
• Poor instrumentation
• Lack longitudinal study
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Challenges to Understanding Resilience
• Risk and protective factors poorly specified and inconsistently operationalized
• Utility of risk and protective factors for screening is insufficiently examined
• Mediating and moderating relationships are insufficiently examined
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We Need To…
• Increase standardization in measurement of coping in childhood and adolescence based on clear definitions and cultural considerations
• Examine coping style, flexibility, and self-efficacy within the disaster context
• Develop and test explanatory models of coping that are sensitive to culture
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We Need To…..• Conceptualize risk and protective factors in
ways that effectively inform prevention, intervention, and public policy
• Distinguish direct and indirect relationships among risk and protective factors, mediators and moderators; over time
• Develop theory-driven explanatory models
• Utilize advanced modeling techniques
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Then We Can…..
Develop, implement, and evaluate interventions supporting individual,
family, and community resilience
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