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Cosmic Alchemy:
The Origin of the Chemical Elements
Eric Norman
Nuclear Engineering Dept.
Univ. of California at Berkeley
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Dark Night Sky
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Visible EM Spectrum
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What is the universe made of ?
• Hydrogen = 75%, by mass
• Helium = 23 %
• Everything Else = 2%
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Particle
Data
Group
2020
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S-factor for the
d(p,g)3He reaction
Recent results from LUNA collaboration
Nature 587 (2020) 210
Implications:
Baryonic matter represents only a few
percent of the critical density
There are only 3 active neutrino species
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Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
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The Sun shines by nuclear fusion reactions!
Hans Bethe
Nobel Prize 1967
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CNO Cycle
Main hydrogen
burning
mechanism in
more massive
stars
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Predicted fluxes of solar neutrinos at Earth
Fn = 2 x Lsun/Q and Lsun = 1.2 kW/m2
Q = 25 MeV → Fn = 6x1010/cm2/sec
John Bahcall
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Recent Observations of Solar pp, pep, 7Be, and CNO
Neutrinos by Borexino Collaboration
FnCNO =
Nature 587 (2020) 577
Nature 512 (2014) 383
Phys. Rev. D 100 (2019) 082004
Fnpp =
Fnpep =
Fn7Be =
cm-2 s-1
cm-2 s-1
cm-2 s-1
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Helium Burning in Red-Giant Stars
Burbidge, Burbidge, Fowler, Hoyle
B2FH (1957)
At T = 1x108K and r = 105 g/cc:
N(8Be)/N(4He) = 1x10-9
t1/2(8Be) = 10-16 sec
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GpairClayton
See talk by Tibor Kibedi and
Phys. Rev. Lett. 182 (2020) 182701
for recent measurements of Gpair , Gg
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Nuclear Physics A
233 (1974) 495
Subthreshold
1- state plays
major role in 16O production
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Basdevant et al. argue that this arrangement of nuclear levels is the only
one that allows for significant amounts of 12C to be produced in stars.
(Fundamentals in Nuclear Physics, Springer, 2005)
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Fate of Stars
For stars with masses < 10 MSun
No further nuclear reactions possible
→ White Dwarf (maximum mass = 1.4 MSun)
Chandrasekhar Mass limit
Supported by electron degeneracy pressure
For more massive stars,
No such quiet fate possible
→ Neutron Star or Black Hole
Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar
Nobel Prize 1983
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Advanced stellar burning12C + 12C → 24Mg + g, 20Ne + 4He
16O + 16O → 32S + g, 28Si + 4He
Then through successive captures of 4He,
28Si → 56Ni
At this point the star is on its deathbed,
No further energy generation possible
J. M. Munson et al.
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Late stage massive star
Burning
Stage
Temperature
(keV)
Density
(g/cm3)
Timescale
Hydrogen 5 5 7 x 106 years
Helium 20 700 5 x 105 years
Carbon 80 2 x 105 600 years
Neon 150 4 x 106 1 year
Oxygen 200 1 x 107 6 months
Silicon 350 3 x 107 1 day
Collapse 600 3 x 109 seconds
Bounce 3000 1014 milliseconds
Explosion 100 - 600 varies 0.1 – 10
seconds
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Supernova Explosion
Temperature goes up
Density goes up
p + e-→ n + ne
e+ +e-→ n + n
99% of SN energy
comes off in neutrinos
SN 1987a
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Neutrinos from SN1987a
observed by Kamiokande and IMB
underground telescopes
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56Co
t1/2 = 77 days
56Fe
stable
847
keV
b+/EC
56Co gamma rays observed from SN1987a
t1/2(56Co) = 77.08+0.08 days
Lesko et al.
PRC 40 (1989) 445
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44Ti gamma rays observed from CasA
t1/2(44Ti) = 62+2 years
Norman et al.
PRC 57(1998) 2010
s(40Ca(a,g)44Ti
R.D. Hoffman et al.
Ap. J. 715(2010) 1383
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Pre-solar
graphite grains
from Murchison
meteorite
containing TiC
inclusions
E. Zinner et al.
Washington Univ.
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Supernova Remnants
•Neutron star – supported by neutron degeneracy pressure
–Upper limit on neutron star mass ~ 2.5 MSun
Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit
Higher masses → black hole
RSchwarzschild = 2GM/c2
For 1 MSun, Rs = 3 km
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Origin of Heavy elements
Neutron capture reactions
slow (s) process
produces half of nuclei from 56Fe → 209Bi
occurs during He-burning in red giant stars
rapid (r) process
produces other half of nuclei heavier than 56Fe plus Th and U
occurs in supernovae, neutron star mergers ?
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s and r processes
Blue – r process only
Red – s process only
White – s and r processes
Yellow – p process
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s – process
Believed to occur during He-burning in red giant stars
Neutron sources : 13C(a,n)16O , 22Ne(a,n)25Mg reactions
at T ~ (1 – 4) x 108 K, nn ~ 108 /cm3
→ rng = nn<sv> = (108/cm3)(10-25 cm2)(2x108 cm/s) = 2 x 10-9/s
→ tng ~ 15 years !
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dNA/dt = sA-1NA-1 – sANA
At equilibrium, dNA/dt = 0
→ expect sA-1NA-1 = sANA = constant
n,g n,g
A-1 A A+1
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Kappeler et al.
Rev. Mod. Phys. 83 (2011) 157
→s-process abundance peaks for nuclei with low s(n,g)
→i.e. N = 50, 82, 126 → A ~ 90, 140, 208
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Termination of s-process
r-process needed to explain Th , U
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r-process path
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GW170817: Observation of
Gravitational Waves from a Binary
Neutron Star Inspiral
LIGO, PRL 119 (2017) 161101
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Pian et al.
Nature 551 (2017) 67
Photon spectra observed from GW170817 and GRB170817 sources
Orange
curves are
rich in
lanthanides
(indicative of
r-process)
Evidence for neutron-star mergers as a possible site for the r-process
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This star may have formed too early for neutron-star mergers to explain r-
process abundances. Thus, there may be more than one r-process site.
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Source of stellar energies
Origin of chemical elements
Nuclear reactions