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An organization is a collection of people who work together toachieve individual and organizational goals
DefinitionOrganizationalbehaviour, is
Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study and application of knowledge about howpeople, individuals, and groups act in organizations. It does this by taking a systemapproach. That is, it interprets peopleorganization relationships in ter!s of the wholeperson, whole group, whole organization, and whole social syste!. Its purpose is tobuild better relationships by achieving hu!an ob"ectives, organizational ob"ectives, andsocial ob"ectives.
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Organizational behaviorstudies organizations from
multiple viewpoints and levels, including behavior within theorganization and in relation to other organizations.
Micro organizational behavior refers to individual and groupdynamics in an organizational setting.
Macro organizational theorystudies whole organizations andindustries, including how they adapt, and the strategies, structures, andcontingencies that guide them.
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OB highlights four central characteristics of the field:
It is firmly grounded in the scientific method
It studies individuals, groups, and organizations.
It is interdisciplinary in nature.
It is used as the basis for enhancing orgainsationaleffectiveness and individual wellbeing.
!he study of OB involves: "onsideration of the interaction among the formal structure
#organizational conte$t in which the process ofmanagement takes place%
!he technology employed and the methods of carrying out
work
!he behaviour of people
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!he process of management
!he e$ternal environment
Interrelated dimensions influencing behaviour:
!he Individual & working environment should satisfyindividual needs as well as attainment of organizationalgoals
!he 'roup formal and informal. (nderstanding of groups
complements a knowledge of individual behaviour.
!he Organisation & impact of organization structure and
design, and patterns of management, on behaviour.
!he )nvironment & technological and scientific
development, economic activity, and governmental actions.
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Providesa set of tools that allow:
People to understand, analyze, and describe behavior in organizations
Managers to improve, enhance, or change work behaviors so that
individuals, groups and the whole organization can achieve their goals
Generalisationsabout humanbehaviour:
> happy workers are productive workers.> Individuals are most productive when the boss is friendly, reliable and
unassuming.
> behaviour of good leaders is consistent irrespective of the situations they face.
> Interviews are effective selection devices. > Everybody likes a challenging job
> People will have to be bullied/intimidated to make them to do their jobs.
> Money motivates all. >
>People are more concerned about their own salaries than others.
>Members of effective groups do not quarrel among themselves.
A Short Historyof OrganizationalBehavior
The Greek philosopher Plato wrote about the essence of leadership. Aristotle
addressed the topic of persuasive communication. The writings of the Chinese
philosopher Confucius in 500 BC are beginning to influence contemporary
thinking about ethics and leadership. The writings of 16th century Italian
philosopher Niccol Machiavelli laid the foundation for contemporary work on
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organizational power and politics.
In 1776, Adam Smith advocated a new form of organizational structure based on
the division of labour. One hundred years later, German sociologist Max Weber
wrote about rational organizations and initiated discussion of charismatic
leadership.
Soon after, Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the systematic use of goal
setting and rewards to motivate employees. In the 1920s, Australian-born
Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his colleagues conducted productivity studies
at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in the United States. They discovered the
importance of formal and informal group dynamics in the work place, resulting in
a dramatic shift towards the human relations school of thought.
Though it traces its roots back to Max Weber and earlier, organizational studies
is generally considered to have begun as an academic discipline with the adventof scientific management in the 1890s, with Taylorism representing the peak of
this movement. Proponents of scientific management held that rationalizing the
organization with precise sets of instructions and time-motion studies would lead
to increased productivity. Studies of different compensation systems were carried
out.
After the First World War, the focus of organizational studies shifted to analysis
of how human factors and psychology affected organizations, a transformation
propelled by the identification of the Hawthorne Effect . This Human Relations
Movement focused on teams , motivation , and the actualization of the goals of
individuals within organizations. Prominent early scholars included Chester
Barnard , Henri Fayol , Frederick Herzberg , Abraham Maslow , David
McClelland , and Victor Vroom.
The Second World War further shifted the field, as the invention of large-scale
logistics and operations research led to a renewed interest in rationalist
approaches to the study of organizations. Interest grew in theory and methods
native to the sciences, including systems theory, the study of organizations with a
complexity theory perspective and complexity strategy. Influential work was done
by Herbert Alexander Simon and James G. March and the so-called "
Carnegie School & quot; of organizational behavior
In the 1960s and 1970s, the field was strongly influenced by social psychology
and the emphasis in academic study was on quantitative research . An explosion
of theorizing, much of it at Stanford University and Carnegie Mellon, produced
Bounded Rationality , Informal Organization , Contingency Theory , Resource
Dependence , Institutional Theory , and Organizational Ecology theories, among
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many others. Starting in the 1980s, cultural explanations of organizations and
change became an important part of study. Qualitative methods of study became
more acceptable, informed by anthropology , psychology and sociology . A
leading scholar was Karl Weick
FrederickWinslowTaylor FrederickWinslowTaylor (18561915)was the first person
who attempted to study human behavior at work using a systematic approach.
Taylor studied human characteristics, social environment, task, physical
environment, capacity, speed, durability, cost and their interaction with each
other. His overall objective was to reduce and/or remove human variability
Taylor worked to achieve his goal of making work behaviors stable and
predictable so that maximum output could be achieved. He relied strongly upon
monetary incentive systems, believing that humans are primarily motivated by
money. He faced some strong criticism, including being accused of tellingmanagers to treat workers as machines without minds, but his work was very
productive and laid many foundation principles for modern management studies
Four Principles of Scientific Management
1. Study the way employees perform their tasks, gather informal job knowledge
that employees possess, and experiment with ways of improving the way tasks
are performed.
2. Codify the new methods of performing tasks into written rules and standard
operating procedures.3. Carefully select employees so that they possess skills and abilities that match
the needs of the task, and train them to perform the task according to the
established rules and procedures.
4. Establish an acceptable level of performance for a task, and then develop a
pay system that provides a reward for performance above the acceptable level.
The HawthorneStudiesHawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company near
Chicago; 1924-1932 these studies mark the starting point of the field of
Organisational Behaviour Initiated as an attempt to investigate how
characteristics of the work setting affect employee fatigue and performance (i.e.,
lighting). Found that productivity increased regardless of whether illumination
was raised or lowered.
Started in 1924 to examine the relationship between light intensity and
employee productivity a test group and a control group were used the test
group initially did not show any increase or decrease in output in proportion to the
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increase/decrease in illumination. The control group with unchanged illumination
increased output by the same amount overall by the test group. Subsequent
phases brought the level of light down to moonlight intensity: the workers could
barely see what they were doing, but productivity increased. The results baffled
the researchers. Obviously, something besides the level of illumination was
causing the change in productivity the complex human variable.
Mary ParkerFollett
Management must consider the human side Employees should be involved in job
analysis Person with the knowledge should be in control of the work process
regardless of position Cross-functioning teams used to accomplish projects
DouglasMcGregor:Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X
Average employee is lazy, dislikes work, and will try to do as little as possibleManagers task is to supervise closely and control employees through reward
and punishment
Theory Y
Employees will do what is good for the organization when committed Managers
task is create a work setting that encourages commitment to organizational goals
and provides opportunities for employees to be exercise initiative
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ATTITUDE
The attitude is the evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects,
people, or events. ore precisely attitudes can be de!ined as a persistent
tendency to !eel and behave in a particular way toward some object which may
include events or individuals as well.
Attitude can be characterized in three ways: "irst, they tend to persist unless something is done to change them. #econd, attitudes can !all anywhere along a continuum !rom very !avorable
to very un!avorable.
Third, attitudes are directed toward some object about which a person has
!eelings $sometimes called %a!!ect&' and belie!s.
Components of Attitudes
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The three basic components o! attitude are (ognitive, )!!ective and
*ehavioural part.
Cognitive Component of Attitude re!ers to opinion or belie! part o!
attitude. +hen you !orm your opinion or judgment on the basis o! available
in!ormation and decide whether you have a !avorable or un!avorable opinion
on that, it the cognitive part o! attitude we are talking about.
e: y supervisor gave a promotion to a coworker who deserved it less than
me. y supervisor is un!air.
Affective Component of Attitudere!ers to the emotional aspect o!
attitude. This is perhaps the most o!ten re!erred part o! attitude and decides
mostly the desirable or undesirable aspect attitude.
e: dislike my supervisor
Behaviora Component of Attitude re!ers to the behavioral part o!
attitude. ! we have a positive attitude !or a particular object, it is likely to be
translated into a particular type o! behavior, such as buying or procuring that
object.
e: m looking !or other work0 ve complained about my supervisor to anyone
who would listen.
!ormation of Attitude
1ow attitudes are !ormed2 1ow do you develop your attitude2 3ssentially
attitudes are the outward mani!estation o! your inner values and belie!s. Thesedevelop over time. )s you grow you watch the signi!icant people around you
behaving in a particular way0 you are being told to cherish certain things over
others and you learn !rom your teachers and peers and come to value certain
thins over other, thus !orming your value system. These in turn give rise to
development o! your attitudes.
Attitudes hep predict wor" behavior#The !ollowing eample might
help to illustrate it. )!ter introducing a particular policy, it is !ound !rom an
attitude survey, that the workers are not too happy about it. 4uring the
subse5uent week it is !ound that the attendance o! the employees drops sharply
!rom the previous standard. 1ere management may conclude that a negativeattitude toward new work rules led to increased absenteeism.
Attitudes hep peope to adapt to their wor" environment# )n
understanding o! attitudes is also important because attitudes help the
employees to get adjusted to their work. ! the management can success!ully
develop a- positive attitude among the employees, they will be better adjusted
to their work.
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,ome of the possibe ways of changing attitudes are described beow#
-roviding .ew Information##ometimes a dramatic change in attitude is
possible only by providing relevant and ade5uate in!ormation to the person
concerned. #canty and incomplete in!ormation can be a major reason !or
brewing negative !eeling and attitudes.
Use of !ear. )ttitudes can be changed through the use o! !ear. 9eople might
resort to change their work habit !or the !ear o! !ear o! unpleasant
conse5uences. 1owever, the degree o! the arousal o! !ear will have to be taken
into consideration as well.
/esoving Discrepancies:+henever %people !ace %a dilemma or con!licting
situation they !eel con!used in choosing a particular course o! action. ;ike in
the case where one is to choose !rom& between two alternative courses o!
action, it is o!ten become di!!icult !or him to decide which is right !or him.
3ven when he chooses one over the other, he might still !eel con!used. ! some
one helps him in pointing out the positive points in !avour o! the chosen course
o! action, he person might resolve the his dilemma.
Infuence of friends and peers) very e!!ective way o! changing ones
attitude is through his !riends and colleagues. Their opinion and
recommendation !or something o!ten proves to be more important. ! !or
eample, they are all praise !or a particular policy introduced in the work place,chances are high that an individual will slowly accept that even when he had
initial reservations !or that.
Co%opting. ! you want to change the attitude o! some body who belongs to a
di!!erent group, it is o!ten becomes very e!!ective i! you can include him in
your own group. ;ike in the case o! the union leader who are all the time
vehemently against any management decision, can be the person who takes
active initiative in implementing a new policy when he had participated in that
decision making process himsel!.
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Using attitude surveys on a regular basis provides managers with valuable
feedback on how employees perceive their working conditions. Managers
present the employee with set statements or questions to obtain specific
information. Individual Responses are then combined and analyzed
Important Attitudes /eated to 0rganisations:
=ob #atis!action > is a set o! !avorable or un!avorable !eelings and
emotions with which employees view their work.
=ob nvolvement - the degrees to which a person identi!ies with a job,
actively participates in it, and considers per!ormance important to sel!-
worth.
?rganizational (ommitment - the degree to which an employee
identi!ies with a particular organizational and its goals and wishes to
maintain membership in the organization.
=?* #)T#")(T?@
A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds toward
his or her job
A high level of job satisfaction equals positive attitudes toward the
job and vice versa.
Employee attitudes and job satisfaction are frequently used
interchangeably. Often when people speak of employee attitudes they mean
employee job satisfaction.
A pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job
experiences (Locke, 1976).
An employees cognitive and affective evaluation of his or her job
Determinants of Job Satisfaction:
Personality (the enduring ways a person has of feeling, thinking, andbehaving)
Work Situation (the work itself; coworkers, supervisors, and subordinates;
physical working conditions, and working hours, pay and job security)
Values (intrinsic and extrinsic work values)
Social Influence (coworkers, groups, and culture)
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The Effect of Job Satisfactionon EmployeePerformance
Job Performance
Satisfied workers are more productive AND more productive workers are
more satisfied!
Worker productivity is higher in organizations with more satisfied workers.
Absenteeism
Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences.
Turnover
Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.
Organizations take actions to retain high performers and to weed out
lower performers.
Customer Satisfaction
Satisfied workers provide better customer service
Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction because:
They are more friendly, upbeat, and responsive.
They are less likely to turnover, which helps build long-term customer
relationships
Organizational Citizenship behavior (OCB)
Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and are trusting of the
organization are more willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond the
normal expectations of their job.
Workplace Deviance
Dissatisfied workers are more likely to unionize abuse substances, steal,
be tardy, and withdraw
CognitiveDissonance
A state of tension that is produced when an individual experiences conflict
between attitudes and behavior
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Leon Festinger
Any Incompatibility between 2 or more attitudes or between behavior
Internal state that results when individuals notice inconsistency between 2
or more of their attitudes or between their attitudes and their behavior
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Self Perception Theory
Daryl Bem
Asserts that we develop our attitudes by observing our own behavior and
concluding what attitudes must have caused them
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93G(39T?@
is the process by which organisms interpret and organize sensation to
produce a meaningful experience of the world (Lindsay & Norman, 1977).
Four Stages:
1. Stimulation
2. Registration
3. Organization
4. Interpretation
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Broadbent (1958) addressed the concept of perceptual vigilance with his filter
model. Broadbent argued that, on the one hand, due to limited capacity, a person
must process information selectively and, therefore, when presented with
information from two different channels (i.e., methods of delivery such as visual
and auditory), an individuals perceptual system processes only that which itbelieves to be most relevant. However, perceptual defense creates an internal
barrier that limits the external stimuli passing through the perception process
when it is not congruent with the persons current beliefs, attitudes, motivation,
etc. This is referred to as selective perception. Selective perception occurs when
an individual limits the processing of external stimuli by selectively interpreting
what he or she sees based on beliefs, experience, or attitudes (Sherif & Cantril,
1945).
Broadbents filter theory has been updated in recent years. A Selectionfor-Action
View suggests that filtering is not just a consequence of capacity limitations, butis driven by goal-directed actions (Allport, 1987, 1993; Neumann, 1987; Van der
Heijden, 1992). The concept is that any action requires the selection of certain
aspects of the environment that are action relevant and, at the same time,
filtering other aspects that are action irrelevant. Therefore, when one is working
toward a goal, one will skip over information that does not support ones plan.
Recent studies of the brain have also led to new models, suggesting multiple
channels of processing (Pashler, 1989) and selective perception as a result of
activation of cortical maps and neural networks (Rizzolatti & Craighero, 1998). In
any case, people are selective in what they perceive and tend to filter information
based on the capacity to absorb new data, combined with preconceived
thoughts.
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Social Perception
Social perceptionis how an individual sees others and how others perceive an
individual. This is accomplished through various means such as
classifying an individual based on a single characteristic (halo effect),
evaluating a persons characteristics by comparison to others (contrasteffect), perceiving others in ways that really reflect a perceivers own attitudes
and beliefs (projection), judging someone on the basis of ones
perception of the group to which that person belongs (stereotyping),
causing a person to act erroneously based on another persons perception
(pygmalion effect), or controlling another persons perception of
oneself (impression management).
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Halo Effect
The halo effect occurs when an individual draws a general impression about
another person based on a single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability,
or appearance. The perceiver may evaluate the other individual
high on many traits because of his or her belief that the individual is highin one trait. For example, if an employee performs a difficult accounting
task well due to the managers belief of the employees high intelligence,
then the manager may also erroneously perceive the employee as having
competencies in other areas such as management or technology
Opposite to the halo effect is the horn effect, whereby a person evaluates
another as low on many traits because of a belief that the individual
is low on one trait that is assumed to be critical (Thorndike, 1920). A
study on obesity conducted with health professionals and researchers reflects
the horn effect concept. Study participants were asked to complete an Implicit
Associations Test to assess overall implicit weight bias(associating obese people and thin people with good vs bad)
and three ranges of stereotypes: lazymotivated, smartstupid, and valuable
worthless. The study respondents were much quicker to pair fat
with lazy and other negative traits and/or stereotypes (Schwartz,
Chambliss, Brownell, Blair & Billington, 2003).
Projection
Whereas, contrast effect is the perception of an individual based on the
comparison to others, projection is the attribution of ones own attitudes and
beliefs onto others. All of us are guilty of unconsciously projecting our own beliefs
onto others. Sigmund Freud (1894), along with
his daughter Anna Freud (1936), suggested that projection was a defensive
mechanism, where we attribute our own attitudes onto someone
else as a defense against our feelings of anxiety or guilt.
Stereotyping
As such, the term stereotype is defined to mean a conventional image applied to
whole groups of people, and the treatment of groups
according to a fixed set of generalized traits or characteristics.
Although stereotyping can be positive because it allows us to
Contrast Effects
Research has provided evidence that perceptions are also subject to what
is termed perceptual contrast effects. Contrast effectsrelate to an individuals
evaluation of another persons characteristics based on (or affected
by) comparisons with other people who rank higher or lower on the same
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characteristics. In other words, the contrast effect relates to how an individual is
perceived in relation to others around him
or her. The contrast effect not only applies to the perception of attractiveness, but
it has also been shown to influence self-esteem, public selfconsciousness, and
social anxiety (Thornton and Moore, 1993).
Pygmalion Effect
The pygmalion effect, or self-fulfilling prophecy, describes a persons behavior
that is consistent with another individuals perception whether ornot it is accurate.
In other words, once an expectation is made known
by another person, an individual will have the tendency to behave in
ways consistent with the expectation.
. Impression management incorporates
what we do, how we do it, what we say, and how we say it as we try to
influence the perceptions others have of us. Individuals will try to presentthemselves in ways that will lead to positive evaluations by others by highlighting
their achievements and avoiding the disclosure of failures.
Workplace Communication
# COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Figure 4-1illustrates the communication process. It shows that the sender
is a person, department, or unit of an organization or system who originates the
message. A sender uses words and symbols to put forth information into a
message for the receiver, the individual(s) receiving the
message. Messages are then received and decoded or interpreted by the
receiver. Decoding is affected by the receivers prior experiences and
frames of reference. Accurate decoding of the message by the receiver is
critical to effective communication. The closer the decoded message gets
to the intent of the sender, the more effective the communication. However,
environmental and personal barriers can hamper the communication
process. Details on barriers are described in a later section. To ensuremessages are received as intended, feedback is a necessary component of
the communication process. The receiver creates feedback to a message
and encodes it before transmitting it back to the sender. The sender receives and
decodes the feedback. Feedback is the destinations reaction
to a message (Certo, 1992). It is an important element of communication since it
allows for information to be shared between the receiver and
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sender in a two-way communication.
Feedback is any information that individuals receive about their behavior.
Feedback can be information related to the productivity of groups
in an organization, or the performance of a particular individual.
# FEEDBACK
Feedback is any information that individuals receive about their behavior.
Feedback can be information related to the productivity of
Feedback 79
Sender
Message Create
Encode
Sender
Message
Receive
Decode
Barriers
Environment
Personal
Feedback
Receive
Decode
Feedback
Create
Encode
Figure 4-1 The Communication Process
Source:McShane, S.L., and Von Glinow, M.A. (2003) Organizational behavior:
Emerging realities for the workplace revo
Descriptive feedback. Feedback that identifies or describes how a
person communicates. For instance, Manager A asks Manager B tocomment on her behavior at a staff meeting. B indicates that A was
specific, clear, and instructive on introducing the staff to the computer database
for managing patient accounts. B provides a descriptive feedback of As behavior
at the staff meeting.
Evaluative feedback. Feedback that provides an assessment of the
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person who communicates. In the above case, if Manager B evaluates Manager
As behavior and concludes that she is instructive and
helpful, and that causes the staff to feel comfortable when going to
A for help or asking questions, then B has provided positive evaluative feedback
of As interaction with the staff.
Prescriptive feedback. Feedback that provides advice about howone should behave or communicate. For example, Manager A asks
Manager B how she could have made changes to better communicate her
message to her staff. B suggests for A to be friendlier and
more cooperative by giving the staff specific times that A is available for help with
the new computer database. This type of advice is
prescriptive feedback.
Task or procedural feedback. Feedback at this level involves issues
of effectiveness and appropriateness. Specific issues that relate to
task feedback include the quantity or quality of a groups output.For instance, are patients satisfied with the new outpatient clinic?
Did the group complete the project on time? Procedural feedback refers to
whether a correct procedure was used appropriately at the
time by the group.
Relational feedback. Feedback that provides information about interpersonal
dynamics within a group. This level of feedback emphasizes how a group gets
along while working together. It is effective
when it is combined with the descriptive and prescriptive forms of
feedback.
Individual feedback. Feedback that focuses on a particular individual in a group.
For example, is an individual in the group knowledgeable? Does he or she have
the skills helpful to this group? What
attitudes does he or she have toward the group as they work together
to accomplish their tasks? Is the individual able to plan and organize
within a schedule that contributes to the groups goal attainment?
Group feedback. Feedback that focuses on how well the group is performing.
Like the questions raised at the individual feedback level,
similar questions are asked for the group. Do team members within
the group have adequate knowledge to complete a task? Have they
developed a communication network to facilitate their objectives?
Feedback can be in the form of questionnaires, surveys, and audio
# COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Another important component of the communication process is selecting the
appropriate communication channel. It is the means by which
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messages are transmitted. There are two types of channels: verbal and
nonverbal. The various channels of communication and the amount of
information transmitted through each type are illustrated in Figure 4-2.
Verbal Communication
Verbal communication relies on spoken or written words to share information with
others. Dialogue is a form of verbal communication. Itis a discussion or conversation between people. It is a process in which
participants are exposed to new information. The process involves a series of
meetings of organizational members that represent different views
on issues of mutual interest.
Computer-Aided Communication
Electronic mail has revolutionized the way we communicate. E-mail allows
messages to be rapidly created, changed, saved, and sent to many
people at the same time. One can select any part of the message to read
and skip to important parts of the message. E-mail is a preferred channel forcoordinating work and schedules. Messages can be clearly defined through
concrete and specific instructions rather than abstract
words or generalization
Other Computer-Aided Communication
In addition to e-mail technology, other forms of technology have infused
healthcare organizations and directly enhance and impact the communication
process.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is sharing information without using words
to encode messages. There are four basic forms of nonverbal communication:
proxemics, kinesics, facial and eye behavior, and paralanguage
(Nelson & Quick, 2003). Proxemicsis the study of an individuals perception and
use of space
Kinesics refers to body language, which is used to convey meanings
and messages.
BARRIERSTO COMMUNICATION
As illustratedin Figure4-1 (page79), several formsof barrierscan impedethe
communicationprocess.Longest, Rakich, and Darr (2000) classifythesebarriersinto two
categories:environmentaland personal.
Environmentalbarriersare characteristicof the organizationand its environmentalsetting.
Personalbarriersarise fromthe natureof individual
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EnvironmentalBarriers
Examplesof environmentalbarriersincludecompetitionfor attention
and time betweensendersand receivers. Multiple and simultaneousdemandscause
messagesto be incorrectlydecoded.The receiverhearsthe
message,but doesnot understandit. Due to inadequateattentionpaid
to the message,the receiveris not really listening.Listeningis a processthat integratesphysical, emotional, and intellectual inputsinto the quest
for meaningand understanding.
PersonalBarriers
Personalbarriersarise due to an individualsframeof referenceor beliefs
and values. Theyare basedon ones socioeconomicbackgroundand prior
experiencesand shapehowmessagesare encodedand decoded.One may
also consciouslyor unconsciouslyengagein selectiveperceptionor be
influencedby fear or jealously.
Recognizingthat environmentand personalbarriersexist is the first step
to effectivecommunication.By becomingcognizantof their existence,one
can consciouslyminimizetheir impact. However,positiveactionsare
neededto overcomethesebarriers(see Table 4-1).
Longestand coauthors(2000) provideus with several guidelinesfor
overcomingbarriers:
1. Environmentalbarriersare reducedif receiversand sendersensure
that attentionis givento their messagesand that adequatetime is devotedto listeningto
what is being communicated.
2. A managementphilosophythat encouragesthe free flow of communicationis
constructive.
3. Reducingthe numberof links (levels in the organizationalhierarchy
or stepsbetweenthe senderin the healthcareorganizationand the
receiverwho is an external stakeholder)reducesopportunitiesfor
distortion.
4. The power/statusbarrier can be removedby consciouslytailoring
wordsand symbolsso that messagesare understandable;reinforcingwordswith actions
significantlyimprovescommunicationamong
differentpower/statuslevels.
5. Usingmultiplechannelsto reinforcecomplexmessagesdecreasesthe
likelihoodof misunderstanding.
EFFECTIVECOMMUNICATIONFORKNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT
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Communicationplays an importantrole in knowledgemanagement.
Employeesare the organizationsbrain cells, and communicationrepresentsthe nervous
systemthat carriesinformationand sharedmeaningto
vital parts of the organizationalbody. Effectivecommunicationbrings
knowledgeinto the organizationand disseminatesit to employeeswho
requirethat information.
The followingsummarizesthesekey elements:
An effectivecommunicatormust have a desire to communicate,
whichis influencedboth by ones personalvaluesand the expectationthat the
communicationwill be receivedin a meaningfulway.
An effectivecommunicatormust have an understandingof how
otherslearn, whichincludesconsiderationof differencesin how
othersperceiveand processinformation(e.g., analytic vs. intuitive,
abstract vs. concrete, verbal vs. written).
The receiverof the messageshouldbe cued as to the purposeof the
message,that is, whetherthe messageis to provideinformation,
elicit a responseor reaction, or arrive at a decision.
STRATEGICCOMMUNICATION
Strategiccommunicationis an intentionalprocessof presentingideasin
a clear, concise, and persuasiveway. A managermust makean intentionaleffort to master
communicationskills and use themstrategically,
that is, consistentlywith the organizationsvalues, mission,and strategy.
To plan strategiccommunication,managersmust developa methodologyfor thinking
throughand effectivelycommunicatingwith superiors,
staff, and peers. Sperryand Whiteman(2003) provideus with a strategiccommunication
plan, whichconsistsof five components.
1. Outcome.The specific result that an individualwantsto achieve.
2. Context. The organizationalimportanceof the communication.
3. Messages.The key informationthat staff need to know.
StrategicCommunication93
47688_CH04_077_110.qxd3/9/05 4:51 PM Page934. Tactical reinforcement.Tacticsor
methodsusedto reinforcethe message.
5. Feedback.The way the messageis receivedand its impacton the individual, team,
unit, or organization
FLOWSOF INTRAORGANIZATIONALCOMMUNICATION
Communicationcan flow upward,downward,horizontally, and diagonallywithin
organizations.Upwardcommunicationoccursbetween
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supervisorsand subordinates.Downwardcommunicationprimarily involvespassingon
informationfromsupervisorsto subordinates.Horizontalflow is frommanagerto manager
or fromco-workerto co-worker.
Diagonalflow occursbetweendifferentlevels of differentdepartments.
Longestet al. (2000) providesus with several formsof intraorganizationalcommunication
for healthcareorganizations.UpwardFlow
The purposesof upwardcommunicationflow are to providemanagers
with informationto makedecisions,identify problemareas, collect data
for performanceassessments,determinestaff morale, and reveal employeethoughtsand
feelingsabout the organization.Upwardflow becomesespeciallyimportantwith increased
organizationalcomplexity.
Grievanceprocedure.This allowsemployeesto makean appeal upwardbeyondtheir
immediatesupervisor. It protectsthe individual
fromarbitraryactionby their direct supervisorand encourages
communicationabout complaints.
Opendoor policy. The supervisorsdoor is alwaysopento subordinates.It is an invitation
for subordinatesto comein and talk to the
superiorabout thingsthat troublethem.
94 CHAPTER4 WORKPLACECOMMUNICATION
47688_CH04_077_110.qxd3/9/05 4:51 PM Page94 Counseling,questionnaires,and exit
interviews.The departmentof
humanresourcesin a healthcareorganizationcan facilitate
subordinate-initiatedcommunicationby conductingconfidential
counseling,administeringattitudequestionnaires,and holdingexit
interviewsfor thoseleavingthe organization.Informationgained
fromtheseformsof communicationcan be used to makeimprovements.
Participativedecision-makingtechniques.Throughthe use of informalinvolvementof
subordinatesor formal participationprograms
such as quality improvementteams, unionmanagementcommittees,and suggestion
boxes, participativetechniquescan improve
employeeperformanceand satisfaction.Sinceemployeescan partic
Ombudsperson.The use of an ombudspersonprovidesan outlet for
personswho feel they have beentreatedunfairly.
DownwardFlow
Downwardcommunicationinvolvespassinginformationfromsupervisorsto subordinates.
This includesverbal and nonverbalcommunication,suchas instructionsfor completing
tasks, as well as communications
on a one-to-one basis. Downwardcommunicationsincludemeetingwith
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employees,writtenmemos,newsletters, bulletin boards,proceduralmanuals,and clinical
and administrationinformationsystems.
Horizontal Flow
Upwardand downwardcommunicationsare inadequatefor effectiveorganizational
performance.In complexhealthcareorganizations,horizontal flow or lateral communication
must also occur. The purposeoflateral communicationis the sharingof informationamongpeers at similar levels to keep
organizationalstaff informedof all current practices,
policies, and procedures(Spillanet al., 2002). For example, coordinatingthe continuumof
patient care requirescommunicationamongmultipleunits. Furthermore,committees,task
forces, and cross-functional
project teamsare all useful formsof horizontalcommunication.
DiagonalFlow
The least used channelof communicationin healthcareorganizationsis
diagonalflow. Diagonalflowsare growingin importance.While diagonalflowdoes not
followthe typical hierarchicalchain of command,diagonal
flow is especiallyuseful in health care for efficient communicationand coordinationof
patient care.
COMMUNICATIONNETWORKS
Flowsof communicationcan be combinedinto patternscalled communicationnetworks.
Thesenetworksare interconnectedby communicationchannels. A communicationnetwork
is the interactionpatternbetween
and amonggroupmembers.A networkcreatesstructurefor the group
becauseit controlswho can and shouldtalk to whom(Keyton, 2002).
Groupsgenerally developtwo typesof communicationnetworks:centralizedand
decentralized(Figure4-4).
Decentralizednetworksalloweachgroupmemberto talk to every
other groupmemberwithoutrestrictions. An open, all-channelor decentralizednetworkis
best used for groupdiscussions,decisionmaking,
and problemsolving. The all-channelnetworktendsto be fast and accuratecomparedwith
the centralizednetworksuch as the chain or Y-pattern
networks(Longestet al., 2000). Nevertheless,a decentralizednetwork
can create communicationoverload,in whichtoo muchinformationor
too complexcommunicationmay occur (Keyton,2002). Whena communicationoverloadis
produced,messagesmay conflict with eachother
and result in confusionor disagreement.To reducecommunicationoverload,a facilitator
shouldbe used to monitorgroupdiscussions.
A centralizednetworkrestricts the numberof peoplein the communicationchain. In a group
settingwherea dominantleadertakes over
groupdiscussionsby controllingthe numberof messagesand amountof
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informationbeingpassed,groupmembersdo not interact exceptthrough
the leader. Sucha networkcan createcommunicationunderload,in which
too few or simplemessagesare transmitted.In this type of network,group
membersfeel isolatedfromgroupdiscussionsand generallyfeel dissatisfied. In the chain
network,communicationoccursupwardand downwardand followsline authority
relationships.An exampleis a staff nursewho reportsto the chargenurse, who reportsto the directorof nursing,
who reportsto the vice presidentfor clinical services, and who finally reportsto the CEOof
a large hospital. This networkdelineatesthe chain
of commandand showsclear lines of authority
INFORMALCOMMUNICATION
In additionto formal communicationflowsand networkswithin healthcareorganizations,
there are informalcommunicationflows, whichhave
their own networks.Employeeshave alwaysrelied on the oldest communicationchannel
the corporategrapevine.The grapevineis an unstructuredand informalnetworkfoundedon
social relationshipsrather than
organizationalcharts or job descriptions.Accordingto someestimates,75
percentof employeestypically receivenewsfromthe grapevinebeforethey
hear about it throughformal channels(McShane& Von Glinow,2003).