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School Administrators:Professional Challenges andComplexities
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November 2000
University of Queensland: Graduate School of
Education
UQ Ipsw ich Community Service and ResearchCentre
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Contents
1. Introduction 4
2. Method 62.1 Focus Group 7
3. Results 83.1 Focus Group 83.2 Stressors 9
3.2.1 Heavy Workload 93.2.2 Change Management 103.2.3 Time Management 103.2.4 Behaviour Management
& Special Needs 103.2.5 Professional Identity 11
3.3 Professional Needs 123.3.1 Resourcing 12
3.3.2 Professional Development 123.3.3 Time Management 133.3.4 Professional Support 133.3.5 Professional Identity 13
3.4. Existing Support Mechanisms 13
3.5 Potential Sources of Support 14
3.6 The Survey 153.6.1 Sample Characteristics 153.6.2 Job Characteristics 163.6.3 Professional Support 18
4. Conclusion 22
Appendix 1 23
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1. IntroductionOccupational stress is a universal problem faced by an increasing
number of people in the workplace. Fogarty, Machin, Albion,
Sutherland & Revitt (1999) report a 20% annual increase in stress-
related workers’ compensation claims accepted by Comcare Australia
for the period 1989/90 to 1994/95. In fiscal terms this represents
payouts of about $50 million. Equally important are the hidden costs
to the community such as loss of productivity, and personal and family
hardship (Fisher, 1996). Fogarty et al (1999, p. 429) also note that
the majority (83%) of claims made were based on “pervasive and
chronic causes, such as interpersonal conflicts and organisational
factors such as change and pressure to meet deadlines” rather than on
workplace trauma. In view of such evidence, it becomes clear why
there is a pressing need for research that explores the causes of
occupational stress and its link with the structural forces that shape
work.
Although research has revealed a variety of elements that significantly
contribute to the experience of stress in the workplace, four major
sources of stress among professionals have been identified in the
literature: environmental factors, factors pertaining to the organisation
within which the job exists, those intrinsic to the job, and
characteristics of the individual which influence coping responses.
Examples of each type of these stressors are shown in Table 1.
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Table 1. Sources of Occupational Stress
Despite the existence of many articles that report on research into the
workplace stress experienced by teachers, few deal with the stress
experience of school administrators. Given that administrators have
been challenged with major structural change with the introduction of
school-based management, this is a subject area that requires further
investigation.
EnvironmentalFactors
• Societalexpectations
• Demographicsof schoolcommunity (e.g.highunemployment)
OrganisationalFactors
• Dynamicenvironment
• Increase innumber ofstudents withdisabilities
• Educationdepartmentpolicy issues
• Pressure toperform
• Increased callsforaccountability
• Financial
uncertainty
• Bureaucraticconstraints
Job Factors
• Humanrelations
• Administrativerelationships
• Administrative
tasks
• External timecommitments
• Work/familyconflicts
• Role conflict
• Roleambiguity
• Work overload
IndividualisticFactors
• Personality
Type A
• External locusof control
• Self-Esteem
• Gender
• Years ofexperience
• Family support
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Evidence from the available literature confirms that the roles and
responsibilities of administrators do change under a school-based
management context (Bullock & Thomas, 1994; Beck & Murphy,
1998). Leadership demands are now qualitatively different from what
they have been (Townsend, 1999; Cranston, 2000; Cheng & Chan,
2000). Administrators spend more time engaged in dealing with their
expanding managerial and accountability responsibilities and spend
less time on educational and curriculum leadership. In England, the
introduction of school-based management has been associated with a
considerable cost in principals’ time and effort. Campbell & Neill
(1994) report of primary principals and teachers working 54-60 hour
weeks and experiencing significant emotional distress. The competing
demands now placed on administrators need to be acknowledged and
formal mechanisms put into place that will assistance them to meet
the challenges presented by rapid changes in their profession.
In response to such demands, the Queensland Association of State
School Principals (QASSP) has directed the undertaking of the present
study. The aims of this research program are to identify (a) the
support needs of Ipswich and West Moreton administrators within a
School-Based Management context; (b) current support options
relevant to the identified needs; and (c) to facilitate the development
of additional support options to meet identified needs.
2. Method
The research program was divided into two distinct stages. A division
was introduced into the process for the specific purpose of providing
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interim results used to inform further planning sessions, and also to
provide an opportunity to refine the research instrument used in the
second stage of the study. Data was collected using two sequential
processes. Initial information was obtained through the facilitation of
a focus group and a small structured survey was used to build on
existing data in the second stage.
2.1 FOCUS GROUP
The focus group was made up of 24 primary school administrators –
principals and deputy principals. Eight participants from each of the
two districts of interest, Ipswich and West Moreton, were selected on
the basis of administrative role, gender, school size, school tenure and
years of experience. All the administrators approached to participate
in the focus group session agreed to do so.
A variation of the brainstorming procedure, the 2/4/8 technique, was
used to capture the required information. Group members were
initially asked to generate as many responses as they could to
predetermined questions while working in pairs. Participants were
then required to merge into increasingly larger groups of four then
eight. The larger teams were asked to pool all responses, review them
and rank the top five responses in order of importance. The twoteams of eight then presented their ranked responses to each other. A
final application of the review and ranking process with the original
group of sixteen participants determined the overall top five
responses.
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The content of notes taken during the session were analysed to reveal
themes, trends and patterns emerging from the responses. The
implications of the data were then considered to address the initial
propositions of the study.
Findings from the study were interpreted with caution as only one
focus group session was conducted. Multiple group sessions are
usually required to clearly identify trends and patterns in the data.
Replicability of results ensure that emerging themes are accurate
reflections of participants’ responses and not merely due to chance.
The 2/4/8 brainstorming technique moderated this limitation to some
degree as responses from each size group were compared. This
provided anecdotal evidence to support the overall findings.
Findings from the survey were used to validate data gathered through
the focus group session. The survey is included in Appendix 1 and
results discussed below.
3. Results
3.1 Focus Group
The focus group session progressed through the following steps:
1. name the issues
2. name the support needs
3. name existing support
4. name other possibilities
5. review and consolidate possibilities and recommendations.
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3.2 Stressors
In order to gain an adequate reflection of the challenges that
administrators confront while balancing multiple roles, participants
were asked to identify the key stressors they faced in their
professional lives. The five common themes identified, in order of
importance, were:
• heavy workload;
• leading and managing change;
• lack of time;
• behaviour management/special needs issues;
• professional identity issues.
3.2.1 HEAVY WORKLOAD
A clear impression that emerged from the group session was that
administrators are extremely overworked. Increased responsibilities
since the introduction of school-based management, continual
additions of extra responsibilities, job ambiguity and unclear
boundaries of the role, balancing the daily operational issues with
project management and fulfilling the expectations of parents were
just some of the specific issues mentioned. The lack of resources
available to administrators, both human and financial, exacerbated
heavy workloads and this often produced frustration in administrators
who felt that without sufficient resourcing they could not adequately
perform their job.
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3.2.2 CHANGE MANAGEMENT
Change management was also of considerable concern to most
participants. Many felt that change was imposed on them by a system
that did not provide administrators with the support necessary to
facilitate the successful implementation of new policies and curricula.
Administrators’ lack of confidence in their own abilities to manage and
lead change (a role they feel they have not been professionally
prepared for) contributed to feelings of anxiety around this issue. The
perception of receiving inadequate professional training was not
limited to this aspect of the job; participants indicated that they felt
that there was no overall effective training for the jobs of principal and
deputy principal. Respondents also expressed apprehension at the
pace and lack of stability of change.
3.2.3 TIME MANAGEMENT
Related to administrators’ heavy workload are time management
issues. Almost all participants reported difficulties in finding time to:
support staff; be effective in their roles of teacher and principal and;
balance work and family life. Unrealistic deadlines imposed by the
district or central office was also cited as a source of considerable
stress. In addition, school parents were nominated as being
demanding of time. Some participants indicated that they felt their
job left them with little time to be concerned about their personal
health.
3.2.4 BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT AND SPECIAL NEEDS ISSUES
Behaviour management and the extra responsibilities associated with
students with special needs were also recognised as being time-
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consuming. Some participants lamented at having to invest a lot of
time to deal with issues affecting only a small percentage of the
student population. Administrators also felt that they were
unrealistically perceived as being experts in these matters and
pressure was often placed on them, particularly by parents, to come
up with solutions to problems experienced by students. Teachers were
seen as contributing to the behaviour management issue. Many
participants believed that teachers did not take enough responsibility
in this area preferring, instead, to pass the problem on to
administrators.
3.2.5 PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY
Negative public perceptions of teachers and administrators led some
participants to report that they felt undervalued and not respected in
the community. Others stated that the systemic channels for
promotion currently in place did not value small school complexities,
thereby, effectively discriminating against administrators from such
schools.
Of particular concern is the confusion around the matter of just how
school-based management has changed the role of administrators.
Are they curriculum and instructional leaders or essentially business
managers? This is a contentious issue that requires timely attention.
Clarification of job expectancies would go a long way to ameliorate the
stress faced by administrators.
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3.3 Pro fessional Needs
Participants were asked how they could be assisted and what their
professional needs were. The following top five responses were
recorded:
• provision of adequate resources;
• professional development;
• provision of more time;
•
collegiate/professional support;
• recognition of professional identity.
3.3.1 RESOURCING
The most common types of resources mentioned were adequate
financial and human resources. Almost all participants believed their
schools received inadequate funding and were under staffed. Others
stated a need for legal support and representation, as well as, more
useful and relevant support from the District Officer.
3.3.2. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The provision of focused professional development activities was a
common request among members of the group. Training in leadingand managing change was the area of most interest, followed by
skilling in counselling and mediation.
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3.3.3 TIME MANAGEMENT
A need for time to adequately perform multiple tasks, as well as, to
maintain a balance between their professional and private lives was
clearly expressed. Uninterrupted time to perform administrative tasks,
non-contact time and “laugh” time were typical requests.
3.3.4 PROFESSIONAL SUPPORT
The value of peer interaction in mediating the effects of workplace
stress was recognised within the focus group. Such interactions were
seen as opportunities to engage in informal professional development
in addition to providing personal support and social contact.
3.3.5 PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY
The need to be recognised for the work they do was of significant
importance to participants. The traditional roles of principals and
deputy principals no longer apply and need to be redefined.
Participants described themselves as business operators who were
responsible for administrative tasks and resource management rather
than educators. Roles and job expectancies need to be clearly defined
and supported through the provision of relevant training programs.
3.4 Existing Support Mechanisms
The identification of the support mechanisms currently used by
administrators was important in providing baseline information from
which to build complementary strategies. Responses included:
• professional groups such as the Queensland Association of State
School Principals (QASSP);
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• individual colleagues, mentoring programs and other professional
networks;
• Queensland Teachers Union;
• Family and other “listeners”;
• a sense of humour;
• a system where the District Director works with principals;
however not with deputy principals.
3.5 Potential Sources of Support
The following suggestions were nominated by participants as other
potential sources of support:
• key stakeholders to build advocacy capacity by joining together to
inform relevant parties of the issues that administrators face;
• working to achieve effective District Office support;
• clustering resources, involving consortia, thinking laterally about
how to more effectively use resources;
• revise the values of the system including the language used;
• clarify the concept of school-based management and how this will
affect administrators and schools in the future;
• implement realistic benchmarks;
• increase resourcing;
• department to provide readily available legal support at no cost to
school;
• increase social interaction at a district level;
• QASSP to consider appointing a Welfare Officer.
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3.6 The Survey
The survey was designed to complement the focus group findings
above but again, its utility was limited by the small number of
respondents (n = 22) and the scope of the questions asked.
Nevertheless the sample group represented a broad cross-section of
school administrators.
3.6.1 SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
Age
The higher age range in the sample reflects the greater experience of
school managers.
20-25 026-30 131-35 436-40 1
41-45 346-50 551-55 756+ 1
Gender
Males 8Females 14
Location
Urban 15Rural 7
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Deputy Principals
Only twelve (12) of the sample were at schools that employed deputy
principals – half of this group had two deputies and the other half had
one deputy principal.
Composition
Exactly half the sample were non-teaching principals, and another four
were teaching principals. Only one was a teaching deputy principal
while six were non-teaching deputy principals.
Years of Experience
Reflecting the older age of the sample, most of the sample had
significant school management experience:
Those 15 teaching and non-teaching principals had served a
cumulative total of 137.5 years for an average of 9.1 years.
Not surprisingly, deputy principals were far less experienced,
averaging slightly more than 2 years experience.
As an overall group, the sample recorded a significant amount of
classroom teaching experience with 330 cumulative years for an
average of 15 years (not including non-teaching principal years).
3.6.2 JOB CHARACTERISTICS
School administrators perform a number of different roles and the first
set of questions attempted to identify what was particular about these
roles. The first question asked:
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What would you say your major roles at work are, given the amount of
time you spend on each? Please rank top three according to actua l
time spent on tasks.
The top three responses were:
1. manager/child oriented (particularly behaviour management issues)
2. child oriented (distinct from above)
3. parent oriented
The second question asked:
What do you believe your main role(s) should be?
The top three responses were:
1. leader of change/curriculum leader
2. child oriented/manager of change
3. parent oriented/teacher oriented
The third question - What do you believe the following people perceive your
main role(s) to be? – aimed to see if there were any inconsistencies between
their own perception of their role and how others perceived this role
The majority of respondents felt that teachers, parents and community
members perceived their role to be managerial in nature and child
oriented. They also expressed that Education Queensland perceived
their role to be managerial, leaders of change, with slightly less
emphasis on curriculum leadership.
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There was some confusion with the response (Yes 10; No 10; No answer
2) to the fourth question: Do you feel equipped to deal with changes
associated with school-based management?
It was puzzling that the majority of respondents expressed that their
job expectations had become more complex, increased in volume and
were under resourced; yet, half indicated that they felt they were able
to deal with these changes.
A participant who elaborated that he/she felt personally capable of dealing
with changes, however, could not do so adequately without extra time and
support services from Education Queensland provided one possible
explanation for this response. Perhaps other respondents felt similarly but
did not specify.
3.6.3 PROFESSIONAL SUPPORT
The survey asked participants to specify ways that they felt the following
organisations could assist school administrators in performing their job.
The qualitative responses could be summarized as follows:
Education Queensland
1. Support• Provide staff/management support
Administration staff Teachers Deputies Curriculum co-ordinators
Key personnel Increase DD leadership
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• Provide administration support Pro-formas, etc.
• Provide curriculum support
• Be more realistic with regard to expectations from
• different school (different priorities exist from school toschool)
• Increase feedback re: performance
• Increase flexibility of grants
• Become proactive in addressing Administrators unique welfareneeds
• Change
Support change with adequate funding Be clear about expectations of role and the rate of change Flag and provide opportunities for dialogue with regard to
proposed changes
2. Time Management
• Increase leadership time
• Somehow allocate more time to complete tasks or
• reduce number of tasks
• Out-source one-off work
3. Workload• Decrease teaching workload (for teaching Principals/DPs
Decrease size of classes or 80% teaching
• District Office to assume responsibility for HRM
4. Training & Development• Provide opportunities for PD for Administrators and other
school staff
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• Set up promotional program for interested teachers
• Set up training/support programs for new Administrators
• Provide centrally funded PD Identify common PD needs and provide relevant inservice
• Equip staff to manage changes
5. Reconceptualisation of Role
• Decrease administrative elements and increase strategiccomponents of job
• Increase emphasis on curriculum
6. Advocacy
• For adequate resources
• Free up industrial barriers
QTU
1. Support• With school based decisions
• Promote reasonable expectation of staff
2. Advocacy
• Increase administrative support Staffing
• Encourage EQ to place restrictions on change, particularly,downloading of responsibilities onto schools
• For Administrators
• For adequate pay for all employees in education
• Increase quality of working conditions, timetable for change
• For reasonable workloads and role expectations
• Decrease class numbers in a Yrs 1-7 class
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QASSP
1. Support• Appoint branch welfare officers• School-based decisions• Establish a mentoring program• Curriculum issues• Provide opportunities for networking• Promote role of principal/deputies• Facilitate sharing of knowledge (eg. how do other schools implement
new initiatives)
• Provide greater support for multi-age classes (Yrs 1-7)
2. Advocacy• Increase administration staffing• For administrators role to focus on curriculum• Centrally funded professional development programs• QASSP to develop greater power so that it can influence or initiate
change
3. Training & Development
•
Provide opportunities for professional development of administrators
A final question invited participants to address the following question:
If you have sought assistance from external agencies for work-
related stress, please name these agencies.
Very few participants offered suggestions here but there should not be too
much concern about the number of non-responses to this question. It may
mean that participants felt uncomfortable about answering this question but
a more likely explanation is the degree of uncomfortability in indicating
willingness to seek help (see question 5). There is potential to explore this
in far greater detail in a follow-up survey should funding permit.
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4. Conclusion
Many of the stressors reported in the study appear to be related to
structural changes for which administrators have not been prepared.
School-based management has changed the focus and content of
administrators’ jobs, however, those affected have not been equipped
to meet these challenges. This has led to job and role ambiguity as
many new and non-traditional tasks have been added to
administrators’ job expectancies. It is not surprising then that
administrators are experiencing increasingly higher levels of workplace
stress which often spills over to affect their private lives.
Despite the existence of multiple strategies to address stress at
varying levels, there appears to be an overwhelming and fundamental
need to redefine administrators’ roles within the context of school-
based management. Administrators are beginning to see themselves
as leaders and managers of organisations and are starting to operate
accordingly. This transformation has not been entirely welcome.
There is an overall feeling among administrators that the management
aspect of their occupation has increased to the point where they have
little time to devote to curriculum leadership. There was consensus
among participants that a balance needs to be restored between these
two expectancies and this should be recognised, legitimised and
supported through departmental channels in the form of revised
position descriptions, position status (professionalism), resource
allocation, remuneration and perhaps even modified department
structures. It is only through the reconceptualisation of the position
that the workplace stress experienced by administrators can be
adequately addressed.
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Append ix 1 The Survey
School Administrators:Professional Challenges and Complexities
1. Please indicate the age-group you fall into.
20-25 26-30 31-35 36-40
41-45 46-50 51-55 56+
2. Gender Male Female
3. Your school’s location? urban rural
4. Are deputy principals employed at your school?
Yes No
If yes, how many? _______
5. Are you a teaching Principal
non-teaching Principal
teaching Deputy Principal
non-teaching Deputy Principal
6. (a) How many years have you served as:
Principal _________ years
(b) Deputy Principal _________ years
BACKGROUND
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7. Please outline your teaching history:
years as a classroom teacher as a Deputy Principal
as a Principal other
Please specify other ___________________________________
Please t i ck a l l responses th a t a r e app l i cab le .
1. Do you perceive your main role(s) as being:
manager curriculum leader curriculum advisor
resource person teacher oriented child oriented
parent oriented counsellor guidance officer
all of the above manager of change leader of change
other
If other, please specify _________________________________
2. Do you believe your main role(s) should be:
manager curriculum leader curriculum advisor
resource person teacher oriented child oriented
parent oriented counsellor guidance officer
all of the above manager of change leader of change
other
JOB CHARACTERISTICS
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If other, please specify _________________________________
3. What do you believe the following people perceive your mainrole(s) to be:
Teachers?
manager curriculum leader curriculum advisor
resource person teacher oriented child oriented
parent oriented counsellor guidance officer
all of the above manager of change leader of change
other
If other, please specify _________________________________
Parents?
manager curriculum leader curriculum advisor
resource person teacher oriented child oriented
parent oriented counsellor guidance officer
all of the above manager of change leader of change
other
If other, please specify _________________________________
Other community members?
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manager curriculum leader curriculum advisor
resource person teacher oriented child oriented
parent oriented counsellor guidance officer
all of the above manager of change leader of change
other
If other, please specify _________________________________
Education Queensland?
manager curriculum leader curriculum advisor
resource person teacher oriented child oriented
parent oriented counsellor guidance officer
all of the above manager of change leader of change
other
If other, please specify _________________________________
4. Do you believe that the introduction of school-based managementhas changed the expectancies associated with your job?
Yes No
If yes, please specify how you feel your job has changed.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
5. Do you feel equipped to deal with the associated changes?
Yes No
7. Please specify ways that you feel the following organizations canassist you in performing your job.
Educat ion Queens land
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Queens land Teachers Un ion
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
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Queens land Assoc ia t ion o f S ta t e Schoo l Pr inc ipa ls
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Other, please specify
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
7. Please nominate any areas of professional development that youfeel would assist you in performing your job?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
1. Are you happy in your job as you are currently experiencing it?
Yes No
2. Do you feel positively challenged?
Always Often Sometimes Never
3. Do you experience a sense of achievement in your work?
Always Often Sometimes Never
4. Do you feel professionally isolated?
Always Often Sometimes Never
bPlease feel free to comment on any of the preceding questions.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
JOB SATISFACTION
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5. Please indicate which of the following, if any, have a major influenceon you job?
isolation high unemployment area low socio-economic area
area is industry-specific cultural diversity of area sole parent families
other, please specify ____________________________________________
6. Please describe how these factors have impacted on your job.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
7. Do you believe that you are adequately paid to do your job?
Yes No
If no, how much more do you think you should be paid?
up to 10% > 10%
8. How do you view your future as a Principal?
long-term a stepping stone to greater things
can’t wait till retirement not sure
I’d walk out tomorrow, given the opportunity
other
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If other, please specify, or feel free to comment further
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________