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Disease EntitiesAnd Substance Profiles
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Alcoholism: A Prototype Disease
Alcohol Dependence can be viewed as a prototype of chemical (substance) use and dependence.
E.M. Jellinek, pioneer of the disease model, identified phases of abuse-to-dependence
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Jellinek’s Four PhasesThe individual with alcoholism progresses
through these phases.The characteristics of the phases can assist
clients, families and health care providers in understanding 1) the loss of control and 2) ethical deterioration characteristic of individuals with chronic chemical dependency (regardless of the chemical of choice).
View chart of these phases at: http://www.in.gov/judiciary/ijlap/docs/jellinek.pdf
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Phase I: Pre-alcoholic Phase
Chemical used to relieve stressTolerance develops
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Phase II: Early Alcoholic PhaseBegins with the first blackoutThe chemical is no longer associated with
pleasure or reliefThe individual requires the chemicalThe individual is increasingly secretive; becomes
preoccupied with chemical use and maintenance of supply
Individual is increasingly reliant upon the defense mechanisms of denial and rationalization
Use is associated with guilt and shame
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Phase III: Middle or Crucial PhaseIndividual demonstrates signs and symptoms
of Physiological and Psychological dependence
Binge use often occursInteractions are characterized by anger and
aggressionFamily dysfunctionIndividual demonstrates impairment in social
and occupational functioning
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Phase IV: Late or Chronic PhaseThe individual is almost always intoxicatedEthical deterioration is apparentImpaired reality testing, especially paranoia, is
evidentDepression with suicidal ideation is commonLife-threatening physical consequences are
evident:Peripheral neuritis with LE numbness, painAlcoholic myopathyWernicke-Korsakoff syndromeAlcoholic cardiomyopathy
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Complications of Alcoholism due to Thiamine (B1) Deficiency
Korsakoff’s Syndrome: memory loss, amnesia, psychosis
Wernicke’s Encephalopathy: ataxia, muscle weakness, nystagmus and confusion
Often appear together = Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
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Result of toxicity + nutritional deficiency
Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy
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Phase IV: Late or Chronic Phase, cont.HepatitisCirrhosis (complications include portal
hypertension, ascites, esophageal varices and hepatic encephalopathy)
Esophagitis and gastritis (ulcers, hemorrhage)
PancreatitisLeukopeniaThrombocytopeniaSexual dysfunction
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Substance Profiles
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ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE: Some Facts
5-7% of Americans are Alcoholics 5-7% of Americans are Alcoholics Every alcoholic touches lives of 5 Every alcoholic touches lives of 5
people people A leading cause of death: from medical A leading cause of death: from medical
complications, accidents and suicidescomplications, accidents and suicidesFetal alcohol syndrome most common Fetal alcohol syndrome most common
cause of mental retardation in children cause of mental retardation in children Potentiates other CNS depressantsPotentiates other CNS depressantsAlcoholism underreported in women Alcoholism underreported in women
and older adultsand older adults
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Alcohol: IntoxicationMetabolism of alcohol is increased in heavy
drinkersWomen more easily intoxicated than men.Effects: CNS depression and Peripheral
vasodilationDecreased muscle tension, lowered anxiety
level, disinhibition, impaired judgment, sedation
Toxic effects: stupor, unconsciousness (including blackouts), coma, death
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Alcohol WithdrawalUsually develops 4-12 hours after cessation
or reduction of alcohol useRebound phenomenon (CNS irritability) as
drug effects wear off: increased anxiety, tension, psychomotor
activitysweats, tremors, tachycardia, increased temp.
and BPnausea, vomiting, diarrhea
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Alcohol Withdrawal, cont’dWithdrawal seizures may occur 7-48 hours
after cessation or reductionAlcohol withdrawal delirium (also known
as Delirium Tremens or DTs) may occur 48-72 hours following cessation or reduction- agitation, terror, hallucinations
Use of validated withdrawal assessment rating scale assists in objective description of withdrawal severity
(A Belgian beer is named for this effect)
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Validated withdrawal assessment scale: Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol (CIWA-Ar)
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Alcohol: InterventionsSeizure precautions; anticonvulsants for DT’sSuicide assessment and precautions, if necessaryMedications: for withdrawal
Benzodiazepines e.g. chlordiazepoxide (Librium), oxazepam (Serax), diazepam (Valium). Administration may depend on withdrawal rating parameters.
Medications to promote abstinence after detox.disulfiram (Antabuse) = Aversive Therapy; produces
unpleasant or even harmful effects when alcohol is consumed or absorbed in any form (in foods, fluids, cosmetics, medications, etc.).
naltrexone (ReVia) – opioid receptor antagonist-blocks the “high”
acamprosate (Campral) – reduces cravings
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SEDATIVES, HYPNOTICS AND ANXIOLYTICSBARBITURATES &BENZODIAZEPINES• Are CNS depressants• Commonly prescribed for sleep, anxiety,
muscle spasms, etc.• Also used illicitly, including
• reducing effects of amphetamine abuse• if other narcotics not available• by sexual predators
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Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Abuse and DependencePotentiate each other and alcoholProduce physiological dependenceProduce psychological dependenceCross-tolerance and cross-dependence
between CNS depressantsWithdrawal sx.: anxiety, insomnia, nausea,
seizures Overdose and Fatal effects: respiratory
depression, coma, death
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Interventions for Sedative W/DQuiet, calm environmentMonitor vital signsTaper dose gradually; may take weeks or
monthsSeizure precautions
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INHALANTS: Abuse and DependenceGenerally act as CNS depressantsDangerous due to inability to control amount
inhaledUse is associated with
CNS damageRespiratory irritation, distress and depressionGI distressMouth ulcersRenal and hepatic damage Death from asphyxiation or suffocation
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OPIOIDSOPIUM and HEROINMORPHINECODEINESYNTHETIC MORPHINE
DERIVATIVES, e.g:OXYCODONE (OxyContin)HYDROMORPHONE
((Dilaudid)HYDROCODONE (Vicodin)MEPERIDINE (Demerol)
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OPIOID Abuse and DependenceActivate endorphins, reduce pain and anxietyMany routes of use: po, subcut., IM, IV, inhaledIV use is associated with infection, including
HIV and Hepatitis, bacterial endocarditis, and abscesses
May be prescribed or illicitly obtainedHeroin--highest abuse and dependence
potentialCNS effects, including respiratory depressionGI effects
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Opioid IntoxicationInitial euphoria Followed by apathy, dysphoria, psychomotor
agitation or retardation, impaired judgmentPupillary constrictionDrowsiness (“nodding”), slurred speechImpaired memory and concentration
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Opioid Overdose Pinpoint pupils Clammy skin Respiratory depression Coma (pupils will dilate secondary to anoxia) Death rapidly follows coma
Narcotic antagonist used to reverse overdose: naloxone (Narcan)
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Opioid WithdrawalSymptoms very uncomfortable but rarely dangerous:• Dysphoria, anxiety, cravings• Sweating and chills, piloerection• Lacrimation, rhinorrhea• GI distress (anorexia, n/v, cramping, diarrhea)• Muscle aches, bone pain• Restlessness• Tremors• Sleep disturbances• Yawning
Going “cold turkey”means withdrawal without clinical supervision
(begins 6-14 hrs after last dose)
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Treatment for Opioid WithdrawalPrimarily supportive careTreat symptomaticallySpecific pharmacotherapy:
clonidine-for n/v/diarrheabuprenorphine (Buprenex) –reduces pain
and discomfort
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Example of clinical assessment tool for opiate withdrawal (COWS)
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Opioid Dependence: Interventions
Promoting AbstinenceMaintenance Pharmacotherapy to reduce
cravings and block the “high” :naltrexone (Trexan, ReVia) methadone –requires enrollment in
maintenance program (federally controlled supervision)
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CNS STIMULANTS
Cocaine and crackAmphetamines: prescribed or illicit Non-amphetamine stimulants
CaffeineNicotineHerbal
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CNS Stimulants: IntoxicationVarious Effects:
increased alertness, arousal and enduranceDecreased need for food and sleepHR and BP
Neurobiological (different for different drugs):facilitate norepinephrine, dopamine activitynicotinic receptor agonists adenosine receptor antagonists
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STIMULANTS: Cocaine Intoxication and DependenceCocaine –Blocks dopamine reuptake esp. in
nucleus accumbens (“pleasure center”)IV or intranasal route; Crack (dilute) form is
smokedRapid effects and rapidly metabolized:
Intense euphoriaIncreased mental alertnessIncreased motor and cardiac activityIncreased muscle strength
Psychological dependence is even more severe than physical dependence; cravings are intense
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Nucleus accumbens
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STIMULANTS: Amphetamines: Intoxication and DependenceOften are prescribed, widely abusedAmphetamine: Inhibits reuptake of dopamine and
norepi.Methamphetamine: Slower metabolic effects,
often mixed with cocaine (cheaper)Routes: IV, intranasal, po, smokedImmediate intense pleasure, lasting high“Crash” occurs as drug effects wear offIntense cravings promote frequent, repetitive use Neglect of nutrition; damage to teeth, gums“meth mouth”
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STIMULANTS: Withdrawal and Complications Toxic effects: Hallucinations and paranoid delusions Severe hypertension, cardiac ischemia Withdrawal: severe agitation, anxiety, depression Death from cardiac arrhythmias, seizures, suicide,
respiratory collapse, stroke
Treatment of Overdose:Induce vomiting, diuretics, administer IM antipsychotic
for drug-induced psychosis/agitation(There are no medications that can treat stimulant
dependence)
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Comparison Chart