Copyright © Afrobarometer 2015 1
Dispatch No. 56 | 2 November 2015
Police corruption in Africa undermines trust, but
support for law enforcement remains strong
Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 56 | Pauline M. Wambua
Summary
According to the 2013 Global Corruption Report by Transparency International (TI), the police
are perceived as the most corrupt institution in Africa. Of 36 countries worldwide where
police are seen as the most corrupt institution, 20 are in Africa. According to the report, the
police are the most often bribed institution, followed by the judiciary; 31% of people who
came into contact with the police report having paid a bribe. Bribery rates of the police
were 75% or higher in seven countries, including six African countries.
Such negative perceptions of police integrity are damaging to the credibility and
effectiveness of the agency charged with protecting the lives and property of citizens. As
Kumssa (2015) observes, police corruption undermines public trust in the institution and
impairs effective enforcement of the law.
While the TI report is loud and clear, it does not address how public perceptions of police
corruption relate to citizens’ trust in the police, support for the police mandate to make
people obey the law, and crime victims’ decision on whether to report crime. This paper
adds the voices of ordinary Africans on these issues, as well as on citizens’ first-hand
experience of bribing the police, using Afrobarometer surveys carried out in 34 African
countries between 2002 and 2013.
Afrobarometer surveys
Afrobarometer is a pan-African, non-partisan research network that conducts public attitude
surveys on democracy, governance, economic conditions, and related issues across more
than 30 countries in Africa. Five rounds of surveys were conducted between 1999 and 2013,
and Round 6 surveys are currently under way (2014/2015). Twelve countries have been part
of the surveys since Round 1 (1999/2001). Subsequent rounds have increased the number of
countries to 16 (2002/2003), 18 (2005/2006), 20 (2008/2009), and 34 (2011/2013).
Of the 26 African countries that TI surveyed in 2012/2013, 23 were also part of the 2011/2013
Afrobarometer surveys. TI and Afrobarometer differ in methodology: TI uses computer-
assisted telephone interviewing in addition to face-to-face interviews and in some countries
samples only urban areas; Afrobarometer uses only face-to-face interviews in the language
of the respondent’s choice, and all samples are nationally representative.
Afrobarometer’s samples of between 1,200 and 2,400 adults yield country-level results with a
margin of sampling error of +/-3% (for 1,200 respondents) or +/-2% (for 2,400 respondents) at a
95% confidence level.
Key findings
Across the 34 countries surveyed by Afrobarometer, the police are perceived as the
most corrupt public institution; on average, 42% of citizens say “most” or “all” police
are corrupt.
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2015 2
Only about half (53%) of citizens say they trust the police “somewhat” or “a lot.” In the
18 countries tracked since 2005, trust in the police has decreased from 58% in
2005/2006 to 54% in 2011-2013.
As perceptions of corruption among police have increased, people’s trust in the
police has decreased.
Despite these trends, support for the police mandate to make people obey the law
has increased across the 16 countries tracked since 2002/2003, from 73% to 79% in
2011/2013.
Only half of citizens would go to the police first for assistance if they were victims of
crime. The main reasons why victims do not report crimes to the police are concerns
about police performance.
Among the 16 countries tracked since 2002/2003, Zambia is the only country where
trust in the police and support for the police mandate have increased while
perceived police corruption and the reported payment of bribes to police have
decreased.
Perceived corruption among the police
Across 34 countries surveyed in 2011/2013, about four of 10 respondents (42%) say that
“most” or “all” of the police are corrupt; only 10% say that “none” of the police are corrupt
(Figure 1).
Figure 1: Perceptions of police corruption | 34 countries | 2011/2013
Respondents were asked: How many of the following people do you think are involved in corruption, or
haven’t you heard enough about them to say: Police?
Citizens perceive the police as their countries’ most corrupt public institution (Figure 2).
Among the 34 surveyed countries, citizens in only eight countries do not rank the police as
the most corrupt institution (Algeria, Benin, Cameroon, Mali, Namibia, Sudan, Swaziland, and
Togo). In these countries, the police are ranked in the top three, among the seven institutions
that were compared, except for Algeria, where the police rank sixth.
None of them,
10%
Some of them,
38%
Most of them,
28%
All of them, 14%
Don't know /
Haven't heard
enough, 10%
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Figure 2: Perceptions of corruption across institutions | 34 countries | 2011/2013
(% who say “all of them” or “most of them”)
Nonetheless, countries vary widely in the proportions of the population who see the police as
corrupt. Almost eight of 10 Nigerians (78%) perceive “most” or “all” police to be corrupt,
compared to only 17% of Cape Verdeans (where police still rank as the most corrupt
institution) and 14% of Algerians (Figure 3).
At the regional level, police in East Africa are perceived to be corrupt by the largest
proportion of citizens: 52% of East Africans say “most” or “all” of their countries’ police are
corrupt, compared to 45% of West Africans, 39% of southern Africans, and 31% of North
Africans (Figure 4).
24%
27%
28%
30%
34%
34%
42%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45%
Office of the presidency
Judges and magistrates
Members of Parliament
Local government councillors
Government officials
Tax officials
Police
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Figure 3: Perceptions of police corruption by country | 34 countries | 2011/2013
(% who say “all of them” or “most of them”)
Figure 4: Perceptions of police corruption by region | 34 countries | 2011/2013
(% who say “all of them” or “most of them”)
14%
17%
18%
25%
25%
30%
32%
33%
33%
34%
35%
35%
37%
37%
38%
38%
38%
42%
42%
43%
44%
45%
46%
46%
53%
53%
55%
55%
56%
57%
62%
62%
69%
69%
78%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
Algeria
Cape Verde
Mauritius
Tunisia
Senegal
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Madagascar
Niger
Sudan
Guinea
Lesotho
Morocco
MozambiqueCote d’Ivoire
Malawi
Swaziland
Namibia
Average
Togo
Egypt
Benin
Mali
Zambia
South Africa
Burundi
Ghana
Liberia
Tanzania
Cameroon
Uganda
Zimbabwe
Sierra Leone
Kenya
Nigeria
31%
39%
42%
45%
52%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
North Africa
Southern Africa
Average
West Africa
East Africa
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Across the 16 countries tracked since 2002/2003,1 the proportion of citizens who perceive
“most” or “all” police to be corrupt increased from 43% to 47% in 2011/2013. Public
perceptions of corruption among the police in Zimbabwe showed the greatest increase, a
20-percentage-point jump (Figure 5), while the greatest decrease was in Senegal, which saw
a 16-point decline (Figure 6).
Figure 5: Change in perceptions of police corruption: Countries with greatest
increase | 16 countries | 2002-2013
(% saying “all of them” or “most of them”)
Figure 6: Change in perceptions of police corruption: Countries with greatest
decrease | 16 countries | 2002-2013
(% saying “all of them” or “most of them”)
1 The 16 countries tracked since Round 2 in 2002/2003 are Botswana, Cape Verde, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
42%
62%
47%
62%
38%
48%45%
53%44%
34%37%
56%
59%64%
73%
69%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
2002/2003 2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013
Zimbabwe South Africa Tanzania Kenya
41%
27%25%
25%
55%50%
46%46%48%
28%40% 38%
67% 67% 69%
62%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
2002/2003 2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013
Senegal Mali Malawi Uganda
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Trust in the police
Slightly more than half of citizens (53%) say they trust the police “somewhat” or “a lot,” while
44% trust them “not at all” or “just a little.” Still, the police are not among the least-trusted
institutions. Citizens trust the army the most and opposition political parties the least (Figure 7).
Among the 34 countries, the police are the least-trusted institution in only Sierra Leone and
Nigeria.
Figure 7: Trust in institutions | 34 countries | 2011/2013
Respondents were asked: How much do you trust each of the following, or haven’t you heard enough
about them to say?
(% who say “somewhat” or “a lot”)
Algerians trust their police the most, with 82% saying they trust them “somewhat” or “a lot,”
while Nigerians trust their police the least (16%) (Figure 8).
At the regional level, southern Africans (59%) trust their countries’ police more than East
Africans (57%), North Africans (51%), and West Africans (48%) (Figure 9).
35%
41%
47%
48%
51%
51%
53%
59%
61%
67%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
Opposition political parties
Tax department
Elected local government council
Ruling party
Electoral commission
Parliament
Police
Courts of law
President
Army
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2015 7
Figure 8: Trust in the police by country | 34 countries | 2011/2013
(% who say “somewhat” or “a lot”)
Figure 9: Trust in the police by region | 34 countries | 2011/2013
(% who say “somewhat” or “a lot”)
16%
31%
32%
34%
35%
38%
40%
42%
42%
43%
44%
48%
48%
49%
49%
49%
50%
51%
52%
53%
56%
57%
60%
60%
61%
61%
65%
66%
67%
68%
70%
76%
76%
77%
82%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
Nigeria
Liberia
Kenya
Sierra Leone
Morocco
Egypt
Cameroon
Cote d’Ivoire
Ghana
Guinea
Togo
Zimbabwe
Tunisia
Zambia
Mali
South Africa
Sudan
Uganda
Madagascar
Average
Lesotho
Benin
Swaziland
Cape Verde
Tanzania
Botswana
Mozambique
Burkina Faso
Mauritius
Malawi
Burundi
Niger
Namibia
Senegal
Algeria
48%
51%
53%
57%
59%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
West Africa
North Africa
Average
East Africa
Southern Africa
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Across the 18 countries tracked since 2005/2006,2 trust in the police decreased from 58% to
54% in 2011/2013. Benin, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe show increasing trust levels, most
notably an 18-percentage-point increase in Zambia between 2005 and 2013 (Figure 10).
Tanzania, Mali, and Ghana show the largest decreases in trust over the period, each with a
drop of more than 20 percentage points (Figure 11).
Figure 10: Trust in police: Countries with greatest increase | 18 countries | 2005-2013
(% saying “somewhat” or “a lot”)
Figure 11: Trust in police: Countries with greatest decrease | 18 countries | 2005-2013
(% saying “somewhat” or “a lot”)
2 Data on trust in the police exists for 1999/2000 and 2002/2003, but due to small changes in response options, these survey rounds are excluded from this comparison. The 18 countries tracked since 2005/2006 are Benin, Botswana, Cape Verde, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
31%
51% 49%43%
53% 57%
64%
71%76%
39% 46% 48%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013
Zambia Benin Namibia Zimbabwe
73%
50%49%
84%
61%61%64%
47%42%
66%
37%
51%
67%
59% 56%
79%69%
68%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013
Mali Tanzania Ghana
Uganda Lesotho Malawi
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The analysis shows that the less citizens perceive the police as corrupt, the more they trust the
police (Figure 12). A Pearson’s correlation test shows a strong positive correlation between
the two (r = 0.651 at 0.01 significance level).
Figure 12: Association between perceived corruption and trust in the police
| 34 countries | 2011/2013
Paying bribes to avoid problems with the police
Across the 34 countries, 14% of survey respondents say they paid bribes during the previous
year to avoid problems with the police. Those who paid bribes include respondents who say
they paid bribes “once or twice,” “a few times,” or “often.” Morocco (36%), Sierra Leone
(36%), and Kenya (31%) had the greatest proportion of citizens who paid bribes. Cape Verde
had the smallest proportion (1%), followed by Mauritius, Namibia, and Botswana (3% each)
(Figure 13).
North Africans were more likely to pay bribes (18%) than citizens in East Africa (17%), West
Africa (15%), and southern Africa (8%) (Figure 14).
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Figure 13: Paid bribes to police in past year, by country | 34 countries | 2011/2013
Respondents were asked: In the past year, how often, if ever, have you had to pay a bribe, give a gift,
or do a favour to government officials in order to: Avoid a problem with the police, like passing a
checkpoint or avoiding a fine or arrest? (% who say “once or twice,” “a few times,” or “often”)
Figure 14: Paid bribes to police in past year, by region | 34 countries | 2011/2013
(% who say “once or twice,” “a few times,” or “often”)
1%
3%
3%
3%
4%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
9%
10%
10%
11%
13%
14%
14%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
19%
19%
20%
22%
24%
26%
27%
31%
36%
36%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%
Cape Verde
Namibia
Botswana
Mauritius
Senegal
Lesotho
Madagascar
Malawi
Benin
South Africa
Zambia
Mali
Swaziland
Algeria
Burkina Faso
Tunisia
Ghana
Tanzania
Niger
Average
Burundi
Togo
MozambiqueCote d’Ivoire
Sudan
Egypt
Nigeria
Guinea
Uganda
Zimbabwe
Cameroon
Liberia
Kenya
Sierra Leone
Morocco
8%
14%
15%
17%
18%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20%
Southern Africa
Average
West Africa
East Africa
North Africa
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In the 16 countries tracked since 2002/2003, 11% report paying a bribe in 2011/2013, and this
figure has changed only marginally over time. Payment of bribes increased most in
Zimbabwe (8 percentage points) and decreased most in Nigeria (6 percentage points)
(Figure 15).
Figure 15: Payment of bribes: Countries with greatest increase or decrease
| 16 countries | 2002-2013
(% saying “once or twice,” “a few times,” or “often”)
As bribe payments to police increase, so does the perception of police corruption (Pearson’s
r = 0.480 at 0.01 significance level) (Figure 16).
Figure 16: Payment of bribe and perceptions of corruption among police
| 34 countries | 2011/2013
16%
22%
19%
24%
2% 2%5%
6%
27% 29%26%
31%
12%
17%13%
16%
26%
22%24%
19%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
2002/2003 2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013
Zimbabwe Malawi Kenya Mozambique Nigeria
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In addition, there is a strong negative correlation (r = -0.673 at 0.01 significance level)
between the payment of bribes and public trust. The more people pay bribes to avoid
problems with the police, the less they trust the police (Figure 17).
Figure 17: Payment of bribes and trust in the police | 34 countries | 2011/2013
Perceptions of police mandate to make people obey the law
Despite limited trust and widespread perceptions of police corruption, four of five citizens
(79%) believe that the police “always have the right to make people obey the law,”
suggesting that the institution is perceived as legitimate despite its weaknesses. By country,
the proportion of citizens who “agree” or “strongly agree” that the police have the right to
make people obey the law ranges from highs in Tunisia (92%), Ghana (91%), and Senegal
(89%) to lows in Togo (61%) and Cape Verde (62%) (Figure 18).
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2015 13
Figure 18: Support for the right of police to make people obey the law |
34 countries | 2011/2013
Respondents were asked: For each of the following statements, please tell me whether you disagree or
agree: The police always have the right to make people obey the law?
(% who “agree” or “strongly agree”)
In the 16 countries tracked since 2002/2003, support for this police mandate increased, from
76% to 80% in 2011/2013. Botswana had the greatest increase in support (26 percentage
points) (Figure 19), while Cape Verde recorded the largest decrease in support (20
percentage points) (Figure 20). The only other countries where support for the police
mandate to make people obey the law decreased over time are Mali and Uganda.
61%
62%
70%
71%
71%
72%
72%
72%
73%
73%
74%
74%
76%
76%
77%
78%
78%
79%
81%
81%
81%
82%
82%
82%
82%
83%
84%
84%
85%
86%
87%
88%
89%
91%
92%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Togo
Cape Verde
Kenya
Morocco
Cameroon
Burundi
Nigeria
Benin
Guinea
South Africa
Madagascar
Mozambique
Burkina Faso
Uganda
Sudan
Mali
Tanzania
Average
Egypt
Algeria
Cote d’Ivoire
Mauritius
Liberia
Sierra Leone
Malawi
Zimbabwe
Zambia
Niger
Swaziland
Namibia
Lesotho
Botswana
Senegal
Ghana
Tunisia
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2015 14
Figure 19: Change in support of the right of police to make people obey the law:
Countries with the greatest increase | 16 countries | 2002-2013
(% who “agree” or “strongly agree”)
Figure 20: Change in support of the right of police to make people obey the law:
Countries with decrease | 16 countries | 2002-2013
(% who “agree” or “strongly agree”)
62%
85%
88%
75%
88%90%
87%
66%
69%72%
78%76%
68%
82%
86%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
2002/2003 2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013
Botswana Lesotho Tanzania Namibia
81%
71%
63%
62%
88%
81%80%
76%
87%84%
77%78%
50%
55%
60%
65%
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
2002/2003 2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013
Cape Verde Uganda Mali
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2015 15
Reporting crime to the police
One-fourth (25%) of respondents say they were victims of theft from their homes during the
preceding year, and 8% say they were suffered physical attacks. Among those who report
being victims of crime in the 34 countries, only 43% say they reported the crime, while 56% did
not. Citizens of Togo and Benin are least likely to report crime to police (79% of victims did not
report the crime to police), while Algerians are most likely to report crime (only 25% did not)
(Figure 21).
Figure 21: Did not report crime to police | 34 countries | 2011/2013
Respondents who reported being victims of crime during the previous year were asked: Was such an
incident reported to the police? (% who say “no”)
Note: The figures are percentages of self-reported crime victims who did not report the crime to the
police. Sample sizes are smaller than national samples, and margins of uncertainty are therefore larger.
25%
31%
33%
34%
35%
36%
38%
39%
42%
45%
47%
50%
54%
54%
54%
56%
59%
59%
60%
61%
61%
62%
63%
64%
65%
67%
68%
69%
69%
71%
72%
72%
75%
79%
79%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
Algeria
Mauritius
Botswana
Namibia
Zimbabwe
Swaziland
Lesotho
South Africa
Tunisia
Kenya
Mozambique
Morocco
Tanzania
Cape Verde
Sudan
Average
Liberia
Sierra Leone
Uganda
Egypt
Zambia
Cameroon
Burundi
Malawi
Burkina Faso
Guinea
Senegal
Nigeria
Cote d’Ivoire
Mali
Niger
Madagascar
Ghana
Benin
Togo
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2015 16
The main reasons why victims do not report crimes to the police, according to survey
respondents, are issues related to police performance: Police don’t listen or care (cited by
14% of respondents), police would have demanded a bribe (10%), police would not have
been able to do anything (8%), and police may be involved in the theft or assault (2%).
Together, these police-performance-related issues are cited by 34% of respondents across
the 34 countries (Figure 22). Other reasons that were cited include that there is no police
station in the area, that victims fear reprisal from the attacker, and that the crime was
reported to another authority. About one in five respondents (18%) say that most people do
report crime to the police.
Figure 22: Reasons why crimes are not reported to the police | by region
| 2011/2013
Respondents were asked: Some people say that many crimes are never reported to the police. Based
on your experience, what do you think is the main reason that many people do not report crimes like
thefts or attacks to the police when they occur?
Across 34 countries, about half (53%) of citizens say they would seek assistance first from the
police, rather than from other people or organisations, if they were victims of a crime. North
Africans are most likely to go to the police first for assistance (64%), while East Africans (43%)
are least likely to seek police assistance first (Figure 23). Other frequently cited places for
crime victims to go first for assistance include traditional leaders or courts, family and friends,
local government officials, and street committees or local security organisations.
37%
8%10%
6%
11%
37%
9% 9%7%
23%
30%
7%
14%
3%
20%
30%
2%
14%
0%
26%
34%
7%
12%
4%
18%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
Police performance-
related issues
No police or police
station in the area
Victim feared reprisal
from attacker
Crime reported to
other authority
Most people do
report crimes to the
police
West Africa East Africa Southern Africa North Africa Average
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2015 17
To further explore this data, please visit Afrobarometer's online data analysis facility at www.afrobarometer.org/online-data-analysis.
Figure 23: First person/organisation to go to for assistance after a crime | by region
| 2011/2013
Respondents were asked: If you were a victim of crime in this country, who, if anyone, would you go to
first for assistance?
Conclusion
This analysis confirms Transparency International’s finding that the police are perceived as
the most corrupt public institution in most African countries and suggests that this perception
reduces public trust in the police. A majority of crime victims do not report the crimes to the
police, mainly due to issues related to police performance, according to survey respondents.
Nonetheless, support for the police mandate to enforce the law remains strong. Future
research might further clarify how perceptions of police corruption affect police
performance and effectiveness.
Since 2002, Zambia is the only surveyed country where there has been a positive change in
the four indicators reported in this paper: Public trust in the police has increased (from 31% to
49%), the proportion of citizens who do not see “all” or “most” of the police as corrupt has
increased (from 44% to 49%), the proportion of citizens who paid bribes to avoid police
trouble has declined (from 11% to 8%), and support for police enforcement of the law has
increased (from 78% to 83%). Further research might clarify reasons for this positive change
and provide lessons that can be shared with other countries.
49%
25%
10%
5%1%
43%
18%
6%
11%14%
57%
18%
9%
3%5%
64%
53%
18%
10%
4% 4%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
The police A traditional
leader or
traditional court
Your family or
friends
Local
government
official
A street
committee or
local security
organisation
West Africa East Africa Southern Africa North Africa Average
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2015 18
References
Kumssa, A. (2015). Police corruption: A perspective on its nature and control. Donnish Journal of Political Science and International Relations, 1(1), 1-8. http://donnishjournals.org/djpsir/pdf/2015/march/Asfaw-Kumssa.pdf.
Transparency International (2013). Report on the transparency global corruption barometer 2013. www.transparency.org/gcb2013/report.
Pauline M. Wambua is a MasterCard scholar pursuing a master’s degree in public policy in
the Department of Political Science at Michigan State University. Email:
Afrobarometer is produced collaboratively by social scientists from more than 30 African
countries. Coordination is provided by the Center for Democratic Development (CDD) in
Ghana, the Institute for Justice and Reconciliation (IJR) in South Africa, the Institute for
Development Studies (IDS) at the University of Nairobi in Kenya, and the Institute for Empirical
Research in Political Economy (IREEP) in Benin. Michigan State University (MSU) and the
University of Cape Town (UCT) provide technical support to the network.
Core support for Afrobarometer Rounds 5 and 6 has been provided by the UK’s Department
for International Development (DFID), the Mo Ibrahim Foundation, the Swedish International
Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID), and the World Bank.
For more information, please visit www.afrobarometer.org.
Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 56 | 2 November 2015