Download - Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson
![Page 1: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
1
Writing Survey Questions
Research Methods for Public Administrators
Dr. Gail Johnson
![Page 2: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
2
Survey Options: Amount of Structure Structured
Close-ended questions
Semi-structured Open-ended questions
![Page 3: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
3
Structured Questions
How satisfied or unsatisfied are you with the graduates of the teachers college? Very Unsatisfied <---- > Very Satisfied
How helpful or unhelpful have the agricultural consultants been in working with you in the past year? Very Unhelpful <------- > Very helpful
How useful, if at all, has the program evaluation workshop been in helping your evaluate your program? Of little usefulness <------- > Very Useful
![Page 4: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
4
Semi-Structured Questions
What are the greatest assets you have observed in the MPA graduates?
What knowledge and skills should MPA graduates have for the 21st century?
What are the three things that you learned from the MPA program that you use most frequently?
![Page 5: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
5
Structured vs Semi-structuredWhich to Choose? Structured, check-a-box questions are easier
for participants to complete and easier for researchers to analyze. But hard to develop and sometimes feels
impersonal. Unforgiving of mistakes: if you ask the wrong
question, use the wrong word or have a type or grammatical error on a written survey: there is no way to change it. You have to live with it.
![Page 6: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
6
Structured vs Semi-structuredWhich to Choose? Semi-structured, open-ended questions are harder
for participants to complete because it takes much more time to write-in the answers. But they get to tell their story in their own words.
Harder for researchers to analyze because the English words can have many meanings But it may provide researchers with new insights: ideas
and views that had not considered
![Page 7: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
7
Structured vs UnstructuredWhich to Choose? My advice:
If you have a lot of open-ended questions, better to interview in person than ask them to complete a self-administered survey.
![Page 8: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
8
Writing Closed-Ended Survey Questions Harder than it might appear Takes more time that people think Requires an in-depth knowledge of the
topics to be covered Requires a comprehensive awareness of the
words that people are likely to use when talking about the topics
![Page 9: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
9
Writing Closed-Ended Survey Questions “Every questionnaire, must finally be
handcrafted. It is not only that questionnaire writing must be ‘artful’; each questionnaire is also unique, an original.”
--Converse and Presser
![Page 10: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
10
Close-ended: Check a Box
Single question with a response set: How frequently, if at all, have you visited
the community center in the last 3 months? Did not visit (0 times) 1-3 times 4-6 times 7-9 times 10 or more times
![Page 11: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
11
Close-ended: Check a Box
Single question with a response set: Including all sources of income, what was your
gross household income last year? Less than $15,000 $15,000 to $25,000 $25,001 to $50,000 $50,0001 to $75,000 $75,001 to $100,000 $100,001 to $125,000 $125,001 to $150,000 Greater than $150,000
![Page 12: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
12
Using Intensity Scales
Multiple-choice answers to survey questions are sometimes called response sets
Intensity scales are better than simple agree or disagree responses, better than simple yes or no responses
Intensity scales provide a way to gage the intensity of feeling: Distinguish between strong feelings from the
mediocre/whatever feeling
![Page 13: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
13
One-Way Intensity Scale
One-Way Scale: tries to capture a single dimension (or construct) that goes from low to high with a meaningful middle category
Always or Almost Always Mostly About Half of the Time Occasionally Never or Almost Never
![Page 14: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
14
Soften the Ends of the Scales
Soften the ends of the scales by phrasing “Always or Almost always” and “Never or Almost never”
You want to encourage people to use the full range of the scale It is rare for something to be absolutely never or always
I almost never watch TV but it would be untrue to say that I never watch TV
In my mind, I watch TV less than occasionally but that would be truer than saying never
Absolute ends limits the usefulness of using a scale
![Page 15: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
15
A Goldilocks Intensity Scale
Would you say the amount of elective courses offered are too many, too few or about right?
Much too many Somewhat too many About right Somewhat too few Much too few
![Page 16: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
16
A Goldilocks Intensity Scale
“About right” is meaningful information—if fact, the program director would want to see a majority of students reporting that the number of elective courses are “about right”
![Page 17: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
17
Intensity Scales with a Neutral Middle Likert Scale
Strongly Agree Agree Neither Agree or Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree
![Page 18: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
18
Intensity Scales with a Neutral Middle Effectiveness/Ineffectiveness Scale
Very Effective Generally Effective Neither Effective Or Ineffective Generally Ineffective Very Ineffective
![Page 19: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
19
Survey: Intensity Scales
Yes/No Intensity Scale Definitely Yes Probably Yes Neither Yes or No Probably No Definitely No
![Page 20: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
20
Exits: No Opinion, Not Applicable, Don’t Know Questionnaires/survey instruments are
designed for everyone to answer But sometimes people are asked questions
that they cannot answer because the question does not apply or they truly have no opinion
![Page 21: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
21
Exits: No Opinion, Not Applicable, Don’t Know For example, all MPA students might be
asked about the quality of elective courses but some may have not yet taken any
You do not not want them offering an opinion
![Page 22: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
22
Exits: No Opinion, Not Applicable, Don’t Know So, you add an exit: “no opinion, or not
applicable, or don’t know” to the response set
Do not ever delude yourself into thinking you can force people to answer your question if you do not give them an exit Remember, their participation is always
voluntary!!
![Page 23: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
23
Why Exits are Needed
The middle category conceptually is trying to capture an opinion.
A person may not really care, one way or another, if the MPA program decides to change its name. The person is indifferent but that is still an opinion
The exit allows the person to say I have no information about the proposed name change to have an opinion. They are not indifferent.
Subtle distinction but in some situations it might matter
![Page 24: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
24
Adding “Exits” to Scales
Likert Scales Strongly Agree Agree Neither Agree or Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree Don’t know, No Opinion
![Page 25: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
25
Do Exits Work?
Sometimes At best, the provide
A way for people to complete the survey with minimal frustration (and one goal is to make it easy for people to complete the survey)
Meaningful information (and avoid junk data)
![Page 26: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
26
Do Exits Work?
But some people may not want to admit they don’t know People have been asked their opinions about
public programs that do not existRather than say “don’t know”, they find the
middle category: “I give a 3”; This is junk data
This suggests that analysts need to be very careful about how they analyze middle categories
![Page 27: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
27
Big Exits: Skip Questions
Researchers can use skip questions when they want to target a handful of questions to specific participants.For example, in an organizational survey,
the researchers might want to ask a few questions that specifically apply to supervisors.
![Page 28: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
28
Big Exits: Skip Questions
They ask: do you supervise people.– This is a time to use a simple yes or no
response set.If yes, please answer the following 5
questions (questions 20-25).If no, please skip to question 26.
![Page 29: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
29
Big Exits: Skip Questions
Another example: if conducting a citizen survey, the researcher might ask: Did you use the library in the past year?__Yes
___ No If yes, please answer questions 10-13. If no, please skip to question 14.
![Page 30: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
30
Writing Good Closed-Ended Questions Give people permission to provide answers
on either side of scale Phrasing can seem awkward but needed to
avoid bias: “How likely or unlikely are you to vote in the
election” sends the signal that it is OK to answer either likely or unlikely.
![Page 31: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
31
Avoid Ranking Questions!!
They appear to be easy and meaningful but appearances are deceiving
They are very hard to analyze They give very limited information They can even distort information See text for my full and complete rant!!
![Page 32: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
32
Writing Survey Questions: My Best Advice Locate surveys others have used and see if
there are questions that will work for your purpose
Use clear, simple language Encourage a range of responses using a 5-
point scale (or even a 7-point scale) Avoid simple yes or no responses when asking
about opinions
![Page 33: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
33
Writing Survey Questions: My Best Advice Ask only one question at a time
Avoid double or triple-barreled questions“Do you think your supervisor
communicates well with staff about their performance as well as about what is happening in the agency?”
She might do one well but not the other. How would employee answer this question?
![Page 34: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
34
Writing Survey Questions: My Best Advice Close all the “gates”
Provide instructions for skip questions Provide mutually exclusive responses
(eg. No overlapping categories for age or income)
![Page 35: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
35
Writing Survey Questions: My Best Advice Focus on current experiences: memory decays
over time! The more distant the time, the more likely their recall
will be inaccurate.
Leave exits (no opinion, not applicable) Ask only the demographic questions that you
actually need, keeping in mind that some people may be identifiable (eg. the only woman on the faculty will be identifiable)
![Page 36: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
36
Writing Survey Questions: My Best Advice Pre-test, pre-test, pre-test
With real participants, find out: Is each question clear?Are there unknown words or phrases? Is there a better way to ask each question? What questions did they expect to see but
did not? Remember: ask them for suggestions
![Page 37: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
37
Practice: Writing Survey Questions Thinking about the observation of the room
exercise: Develop 5 closed-ended questions that would
enable everyone in the class to assess the key characteristics of the room
Develop 10 questions to assess student opinions about the quality of the MPA program?
![Page 38: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
38
Practice: Writing Survey Questions Compare with partners Notice:
Similarities and differences? How many different topics were covered? How many different scales were used?
While there are guidelines that help, there is tremendous diversity things we each think matters most and the words we prefer
![Page 39: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
39
Survey Questions In The News
Washington Post-ABC survey (11/09) asked: “On another subject, you may have heard about
the idea that the world's temperature may have been going up slowly over the past 100 years. What is your personal opinion on this - do you think this has probably been happening, or do you think it probably has not been happening?”
![Page 40: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
40
Right Concept?
Is it global warming or climate change? Do some people think climate change is
happening but not global warming? How would they answer this question?
![Page 41: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
41
Survey Questions In The News
“There's a proposed system called "cap and trade." The government would issue permits limiting the amount of greenhouse gases companies can put out. Companies that did not use all their permits could sell them to other companies. The idea is that many companies would find ways to put out less greenhouse gases, because that would be cheaper than buying permits. Would you support or oppose this system?”
![Page 42: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
42
Right Question?
Is this the most accurate description of cap and trade?
For those who do not support cap and trade but do want the government to take action to mitigate climate change—how would they answer?
![Page 43: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
43
Dilemma: Short but Biased?
My belief: to only ask about a single option for a complex policy issue is a form of bias But you can also see that the survey would get
quite long if all options were covered in the midst of a survey about many policy issues
It is a dilemma: need to keep it short and simple, but need to be comprehensive to avoid bias
![Page 44: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
44
Writing Survey Questions: Final Words Writing questionnaires are harder than might appear The English language is sometimes difficult: the
same words can mean different things to different people
It is sometimes hard to get a complex issue nailed down in one question It may make take ten.
Pre-test, Pre-test, Pre-test Folks: you won’t write a great survey in a week!
![Page 45: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
45
Credibility of Survey Results If the issue matters to you, look at the exact
wording of the question and the possible answers A news report may not give an accurate rendering Make sure the question did not try to lead to desired
answers (bias) Make sure there are an equal number of positive and
negative response options Consider whether they asked the right questions for the
topic Be on the look-out for fatally flawed questions
![Page 46: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
46
Credibility of Survey Results
At the same time, keep in mind, it really is hard to write good survey questions
The appearance of bias might be the result of how they decided to handle the comprehensive vs keep in short dilemma
It is easy to criticize any survey but after you have done a few surveys, you will have more compassion for the work of others
Perfection is not the appropriate criteria
![Page 47: Dr. G. Johnson, Writing Survey Questions Research Methods for Public Administrators Dr. Gail Johnson](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649c865503460f9493ca69/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Dr. G. Johnson, www.reseachdemystified.org
47
Creative Commons
This powerpoint is meant to be used and shared with attribution
Please provide feedback If you make changes, please share freely
and send me a copy of changes: [email protected]
Visit www.creativecommons.org for more information