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Drug Abuse and Recidivism in Juveniles
Mount Olive College
Project thesis presented to the faculty of Mount Olive College
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Criminal Justice
By
Karen O’neal
June 8, 2010
Mount Olive College, New Bern
Approved by_____________________________________ Date:___________________
______________________________ _____________________
Project Thesis Advisor: Dr. Wesley Fox
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 2
Table of Contents
Personal Information Page ………………………………………………………………………4
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………..5
Section 1: Introduction………………………………………………………………………..…6
Section 2: Literature Review…………………………………………………………………….9
Section 3: Methodology…………………………………………………………………………21
Section 4: Results and Findings………………………………………………………………....26
Section 5: Discussion and Conclusion…………………………………………………………..28
References: ……………………………………………………………………………………..30
Figures and Charts ……………………………………………………………………………...32
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 3
Drug abuse and recidivism in juveniles
By
Karen O’neal
Karen O’neal is currently a student at Mount Olive College. She presently has her Bachelor’s
Degree in Biblical Studies and she seeks to obtain her first Bachelor’s Degree in Science in
Criminal Justice and minor in Psychology and Social Work. Karen works in the field of Human
Services tailoring support for the special needs population. After completing her degree, she
plans to work in the field of probation counselor in the population currently serving and continue
in the field of Evangelism. Karen is originally from New Bern, NC and is attending the satellite
campus in New Bern.
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 4
Abstract
Drug abuse continues to be a concern among people today. The thesis will focus on juveniles
and the issues they are facing as a result of drug abuse. It will be discussed and explained about
the factors that may lead to drug abuse, which appears to be the initial cause of the current and
previous criminal behaviors. The focus point will be on juveniles from ages 12-17 years old as
well as some of the risk factors that are of concern. This paper will attempt to look at risk factors
such as mental health, level of activities, employment, parental involvement, education, and
religious activities that may have a great impact on the juveniles who abuse drugs. Although
incarceration has been one method of intervention to reduce crime and the attempt to deter the
continued use of drugs for juveniles, research will indicate that it appears to have no significant
difference whether to incarcerate or seek other methods of treatment and rehabilitation.
Keywords: drug abuse, juveniles, recidivism, incarceration, statistics, mental health, risk factors,
addiction, substance abuse, treatment
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 5
Drug Abuse and Recidivism in Juveniles
One major dilemma faced in the United States is drug abuse and the effects it has on
society as a whole, according to the Uniform Crime Reporting Arresting Data Survey. It showed
that arrests for drug abuse violations increased over 20% and continues to be a problem today.
(Levin & Langan, 2002, expression NCJ193427)In an effort to reduce drug abuse related crime,
it must take in consideration the factors surrounding the behavior of the juveniles; this can be
seen as the precedent and antecedent of any drug abuse relationship. While incarceration is one
method of trying to deter drug abuse and the related crimes, other methods has been proven to be
effective with some juveniles, such as rehabilitation centers, therapeutic community outreach
centers, faith-based programs, and outpatient centers(SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-
2007, figure 2). Some interventions that can be used are implementing various programs and
social activities for the youth to prevent the delinquent behavior, including mentorship, prior to a
problem occurring.
National data from the United States Department of Justice in 2003 indicated that almost
8,000 youths were transferred to criminal court yearly by the discretion of the courts. Almost
30,000 youths were sent straight to the criminal justice system by direct file, and over 200,000
youth completely bypassed the juvenile justice system all together because of the reduction in
age requirement to be treated as an adult, that means that the age bracket for juveniles continued
to decrease("American Psychiatric Association", 2005). Over half of those cases were for
nonviolent drug offenses. The data from the United States Department of Justice showed that
eight percent of the youth were admitted to state prisons before their eighteenth birthday, 77%
were released before age 22, and 93% completed their minimum sentence before turning 28
years old. However, according to the special report, there was no record indicating that anyone
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received the rehabilitation support that was needed by any other means("American Psychiatric
Association", 2005).
The importance of the thesis studied and analyzed is to show that incarcerating juveniles
for drug abuse and drug abuse related crimes does not prove to significantly reduce the rate of
drug abuse related crimes or drug abuse in juveniles. This will be evaluated by analyzing the rate
of recidivism in incarcerated and non-incarcerated facilities as well as looking into other areas
that has proven to deter juvenile delinquent behavior as a result of drug abuse and/or addiction.
As drug abuse decreases in juveniles, drug abuse related crimes will also decrease and the quality
of lives in juveniles will have a more basis for improvement, including the factors that may have
made a negative impact on the individual that may have been the cause of the abuse of drugs.
Purpose statement
The purpose of this research is to enlighten interested or affected parties of the
ramifications of incarcerating juveniles before other interventions are discovered, tried, and
tested. It is to show that juveniles who abuse drugs tend to have underlying problems or
situations that have been impacted in their lives in some way, and drug abuse has been a factor
that ultimately may have caused additional problems, including criminal behavior and/or
addiction. The purpose is to examine other methods of intervention prior to incarceration, if
needed. Some may be skeptical about the term drug abuse and may assume that incarceration is
the way to “get them off the streets”, dry them out, and reduce crime. That method may fulfill
one accomplishment, and that is to get them off the streets, but it may not have a significant
impact on reducing drug abuse related crimes or abusing drugs. (See figure 3.)
Drug abuse, by definition, is anyone who has one or more of the following symptoms:
recurrent use of drugs and failure to fulfill major obligations at work, school, or at home
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(American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2010, para.2). There may also be recurrent use in
situations that can be physically dangerous, such as driving while impaired or under the
influence, continuous drug abuse related legal problems or continuing to abuse drugs despite
how it affects the social or interpersonal life. First of all let’s take a look at the following:
Non incarceration of drug abuse juvenile offenders
Drug abuse should be treated as a problem, and not a crime. (Bretteville, 2006). Based
on the DSM-IV of the Mental Health Statistical Records, substance abuse is a diagnosable illness
that requires treatment(American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2010, para. 1). It can be addictive
and manipulative. Some drugs are more manipulative or addictive than others. Either way, it is a
mind altering substance that causes individuals to behave in ways they may not have behaved if
not under the influence.
It can cause affected individuals to become very depressed, loss of interest in anything
other than the substance itself, and a decrease in self image or self esteem, according to the
DSM-IV Manual from the American Psychiatric Association. Therefore, if the root cause of the
problem of juveniles abusing drugs is not addressed, then incarceration will not necessarily
reduce the use or the crimes relating to it because based on statistics, in a lot of cases, the
problem is still there. Incarceration may, however, cause the opposite effects, including giving
up on freedom or oneself due to depression and/or anger. It may result in suicidal thoughts
because what was needed to be addressed was “locked up” instead; this can be due to depressive
modes that come from one of the symptoms of drug abuse.
Other measures can be taken into consideration, and depending on the severity and the
offense, incarceration could be the last resort. It is not to completely ignore the crimes, if a true
crime has been committed; but drug abuse is an issue in itself that must be addressed. Prison or
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any other form of incarceration may have a temporary fix, yet may not have the appropriate
ability to get to the root cause of the problem or to actually treat the abuse itself, verses just
addressing the crimes. Although there are treatment programs available in prison settings, the
initial negative impact is incarceration, prison records, and other issues that follow (Bretteville,
2006). Some of those issues can be appropriate staffing, the knowledge of the prison counselors
in reference to the specific abuse itself, the separation from society, family or significant others,
as well as other limitations that follow in a jail or prison.
Incarceration interventions
The problem of implementing drug treatment programs in correctional settings is often
difficult. The difficulty is that despite contrary arguments, the primary focus and tasks in prison
settings are custody. It is to control the inmates and every aspect of their lives, according to
James A. Inciardi, S. Martin, and Hillary Surratt from the article written about therapeutic
communities in prisons and work release (SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007). This
is data referenced from the Treatment Episodes Data Sets, also known as “TEDS”. Juveniles who
abuse drugs, and sometimes are addicted to them, need effective and positive intervention or
treatment, not prison or jail.
According to the American Psychiatric Services, the recidivism rate for re admittance for
drug abuse of any kind is only 18%(American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2010). Data shows
that the most effective means of successfully making a positive impact on an individual with a
drug abuse problem is to treat or help ones who volunteer on their own to come in and be
treated(American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2010, figure 3). Those individuals were more
likely to remain in rehabilitation and successfully complete the programs to result in the change
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of risk taking behavior. The recidivism rate for those individuals alone was only 2%, compared
to 78% for court ordered offenders
Literature Review
Based on the initial statement of this research, it is noted that juveniles who abuse drugs
may have other risk factors that contributes to the drug use, and in turn, the criminal behaviors as
a result. This basis of review and research is focusing on juveniles from 12-17 years old.
Incarceration of the juveniles does not necessarily reduce the rate of drug abuse related crimes,
nor abuse of drugs. Recent studies from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency
Prevention Journal written by Cocozza Skonyra states that incarcerated youth account for about
75% who have a diagnosable mental illness (Cocozza, 2000, p. 7). Mental illness can be
anywhere from major depressive episodes to bipolar or conduct disorders, to name a few. In
either case, it is a diagnosable illness and if left untreated or acknowledged, it could cause
negative impacts on the individual and/or others.
For the purpose of this research, juvenile drug abuse is going to be discussed, assessed,
and analyzed. Having the symptoms of physical danger, trouble with the law due to the
substance abuse, and an increased tolerance of drug abuse or criminal behavior can interfere in
everyday lives and constitutes a problem for society as a whole. If drug abuse is addressed or
effective means are taken into consideration, evaluated, and appropriate interventions are
followed, crime rates in relation to drug abuse may be reduced.
The problems of drug abuse in juveniles may lie within several factors. Some of those
factors are imperative when trying to make a positive impact for teenagers with drug abuse
problems, especially for the ones who do not commit crimes or commit non-violent ones. Many
may begin to contemplate of the possible reasons behind drug abuse in juveniles or where they
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began. There could be a number of reasons or explanations. Some of the factors that will be
discussed are to consider their mental health, parental involvement and education of the youth,
the level of activities, their employment status, or their religious activity levels.
It has already been established what drug abuse means by definition, but some may
primarily look at the issues of hard drug abuse or illicit drugs, also known as controlled drugs.
They are the drugs that are known to have a higher risk of dependency. However, any form of
abuse of any drug is detrimental to the health and well being of the individual abusing the drug
and can cause criminal behavior as a result of that drug (American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.,
2010).
Some of those drugs may be the abuse of cigarettes, prescription drugs, alcohol, or illicit
drugs, such as marijuana, cocaine, heroin, etc. If the individual has a problem with drug abuse of
any kind, criminal behavior can still result just because the individuals may need a means of
getting or obtaining that drug. Some of the problems may be money; so they may steal, rob, or
assault an individual to get what they want or think they need (National Survey on Drug Use and
Health, 2009). Since, by definition, drug abuse is a mental illness and can be addictive, it can
also continue regardless of incarceration or not.
To incarcerate the individual without knowing the cause of the drug abuse that may have
been the main factor of the criminal behavior does nothing but keep the individual there to dry
him/her out and “stamp” a criminal record number by their name. It doesn’t necessarily deter the
behavior, except maybe for a little while. That may appear to be a temporary “fix” to a more
problematic issue.
Addictive behaviors due to frequent drug abuse
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When an individual becomes dependent on a drug, despite the consequences, they
continue to use or abuse that drug. A person is identified as being dependent on the drug by a
few factors, according to DSM-IV. There is a tolerance level that makes the drug less effective
with the same amount; so therefore the individual uses more to try to get the same effect, even if
there is a health or legal risk. There are withdrawal symptoms that follow in the absence of the
drug after a period of time, so crime can be committed to avoid the feelings of withdrawal, even
if there is a desire to stop using drugs, there is an inability to do so on their own (American
Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2010).
Social activities, work, family, and other responsibilities suffer but there is still continued
use, and threats of consequences or knowledge of the abuse has little to no effect of changing the
behavior without appropriate and effective methods of interventions or efforts to address or
“tackle” the issue.
Risk factors and the impact on drug abuse in juveniles
Even knowing what drug abuse does to individuals, one may ask where did it start or why
did it begin? This is where the variables or risk factors are important. Looking at the risk factors
previously mentioned, according to SAMHSA’s 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health,
depression can have a great impact on whether a juvenile will turn to drugs as a method of
solving their problems (See figure 2). SAMHSA National Survey assessed major depressive
episodes of juveniles from ages 12-17 years old in the past year of 2008. They found that when a
juvenile was majorly depressed, they accounted for 37.4% who turned to illicit drug use
compared to 17.2% of youth who were not depressed.
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 12
Other types of drugs mentioned earlier, such as cigarettes, increased the risk of illicit drug
use. If the juvenile began smoking cigarettes at that age or earlier, they were twice as likely to
turn to more illicit drugs. The same result was found in juveniles who drank alcohol.
Level of activities
The level of activities was another risk factor for juveniles who turned to drugs as a way
of escape. The more activities youth were involved in during community functions, religious
activities, or school based activities, the less likely they were to use drugs. It is imperative to give
children something structured to do or encourage them to participate in meaningful activities that
they can find interesting and rewarding. The more they are enjoying what they are doing and
finding their time meaningful, the more they will take time out to do it and the less likely they
will use drugs as a means to an end. Boredom can play a role in risky behaviors, just as well as
peer pressure therefore; according to the SAMHSA survey, the more activities the children or
juveniles participated in the less likely they will abuse or use drugs (See figure 1).
Youth in families of lower income were more likely not to participate in any school-
based, community based, or related activities; however, regardless of the income, youths who
participated in activities had lower rates of cigarette, alcohol, or drug use than the ones who did
not participate(United States Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, 2003). This
indicates that the activities may be there for all to participate regardless of income, yet without
the income or ability to attend for various reasons, the individuals were unable to join. That also
leads to finding something else to do that may not be as constructive; or being left out of events
while watching or hearing of others enjoying them.
As unfortunate as it is, everyone does not have the means to enjoy all the preventative
and extracurricular activities available. It may be stated that some school, church or community
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 13
functions are free. While they may be free, it still takes transportation to get there. The juveniles
may be left home to take care of other things that are needed, such as babysitting, house sitting,
or simply not having the time or motivation to participate because of income status or parental
encouragements and motivation to the youths. Lack of motivation from parental involvement, or
self-motivation, tend to lead to excuses because regardless of transportation and income,
activities could be created wherever they are.
Employment issues
Employment issues are another risk factor in juvenile drug abuse. It is estimated that
one-third of youth from ages 15-17 years old were employed. The studies of SAMHSA National
Survey indicates that employed youths of that age range were more likely to have abused
alcohol, or at risk of abusing it, including binge alcohol and are more likely to use an illicit drug
than the ones who were unemployed(Blumenson & Nilsen, 2002, p. 68). This may be because
some youths, especially at risk youth, may not be mature enough to handle money and tend to
spend it irresponsibly, including having money to purchase alcohol or drugs to use or share with
friends. Where there is work, there comes responsibilities; however, if juveniles are at risk of
abusing drugs or are influential by immature minds, money may be their way of supporting their
habits and plans.
Mental illness in the home
Other factors that may affect juveniles are the mental illness of a family member. In 2002
and 2003, there was an average of 18 million women age 18 and over who lived in the home
with children from ages 12-17 years old. About 2.1 million of those mothers had a mental illness
and abused illicit drugs. Studies have indicated that juveniles who live with a parent who has a
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serious mental illness and uses drugs and alcohol are almost 30% likely to abuse drugs as well
(SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007).
Religious activities and services
Religious activities also contribute to the risk factors of juvenile youth. About 33% of
youths age 12-17 years old attended religious services at least 25 times or more in the past year.
After conducting the survey by secondary data from the SAMHSA National data base, 78%
reported that religious beliefs were a very important part of their lives and that the majority of
them stated that it positively influenced their choices and the impact on their lives.
School experience
School experiences and parental involvement makes an impact of the lives of juveniles.
As discussed earlier, the more involvement in school-based activities, the less likely to abuse
drugs. Further studies from the 2007 SAMHSA’s National Survey indicated that school plays a
vital role in students. The experience in school showed that students with a positive school
experience were less likely to use drugs or alcohol, including illicit drugs. They indicated that
students with a positive experience in school were those who enjoyed going to school, who felt
that their assigned schoolwork was meaningful, and who felt that the things learned would be
important factors in their life for the future.
During school, there are drug and alcohol prevention messages that are taken heed by the
students who see a value in their life and the value of what they want to do in life. They are less
likely to exhibit behaviors that will hinder their success in school or their activities. On the
contrary, students who either do not appear to value school for various reasons, whether
problems in the home, peer influences, or the inability to comprehend the work, tend to do
poorly in school and may result in conduct disorder behaviors, higher dropout rates, or criminal
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 15
behavior due to lack of taking school and education seriously or giving up the ability to try for
lack of self-esteem, self image, or other reasons (SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007).
Many students lack the resource for additional help with school work outside of school
hours. Some students live in single parent homes or with two working parents that may not have
the time or the academic ability to assist in school work, so tutoring can be an issue and anger or
frustration can be a result. Based on the 2008 Survey of SAMHSA National database, parental
involvement plays a very important role in the success of students to avoid juvenile delinquent
behavior or drug abuse in juveniles.
Parental Involvement
Those studies showed and indicated that illicit drug use, cigarettes, and alcohol abuse was
lower among youths 12-17 years old who reported that their parents were involved in monitoring
their behaviors and school work than among youths that reported very little to no monitoring of
those same factors. These statistics resulted in 7.7% of juveniles who did not abuse drugs
compared to 15.6% who abused them. Some of the circumstances discussed cannot be controlled
by the juvenile, such as inability to control the family’s income, unable to control any mental
illness or disability in oneself or in the family. These things can result in stress, depression, or
other behaviors. Many young teenagers can revert to negative behaviors due their circumstances
that hinder their ability to be an active part of their success without the help of outside sources,
including mentorship in one way or another; however, those factors can still have either a
positive or a negative effect on their decision making skills.
Some things, however can be controlled, such as requesting extra help from school, being
determined to “beat the odds” of statistics by searching for help and support needed. These
findings in survey or statistics is not to make an excuse for the behaviors of juveniles that can
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 16
lead to drug abuse, but they are reasons to consider and preventative measures that can be
addressed and assessed. Incarceration of juveniles who abuse drugs or committed crimes while
under the influence of the drugs temporarily fixes the problem, but doesn’t necessarily stop the
problem if the root cause addressed.
Choices are choices and consequences are consequences. Society, as a whole, has the
responsibility to protect and educate all children. Everyone has a part in making a difference in
the children in society. Other measures can be taken if and when a problem is perceived other
than looking at the behavior and not the reasons behind it.
Regardless of the situations or circumstances, consequences can follow that can impact
the juvenile’s life and either leave a negative stigma or can leave a negative one. All or most
consequences don’t have to be incarceration. However, what is imperative is to reduce the rate of
drug abuse in juveniles and increase the positive outlook on life; including, but not limited to
appropriate and effective interventions and treatments, if needed.
Implications that can result from incarceration or arrest
To incarcerate juveniles of drug abuse or their non-violent drug abuse offenses can
impact the individual, but not necessarily in a positive way. Let’s take a look at the adjudication
of youths based on an approved documentary in the article of “Adjudication of youths as Adults
in the Criminal justice system in 2005. The initial goal of the adjudication process was to deter
youth from their criminal behavior and crimes, to reduce the recidivism among youth who are
transferred and to improve the public’s safety. However, the results were the opposite. It
disrupted the lives of the youth and their families, especially from the minority families. With a
federal criminal record on the juvenile’s file, there is a denial of a college education in addition
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 17
to other sanctions for drug offenders (United States Department of Justice, Office of Justice
Programs, 2003).
As a result of two federal statutes, the law suspends or forever terminates a drug
offender’s eligibility for federal college loans and grants and they are not eligible for the Pell
Grants that formerly provided the means to obtain a college degree in prison. This was based on
the 1998 and 1994 federal statute. They are even ineligible for work study for funds to help with
college, regardless of the type of federal offense, whether violent, non-violent, or misdemeanor.
Yet this does not include the offense for rape, robbery, or murder according to the War on Drugs
facts data base (Blumenson & Nilsen, 2002, p. 70).
Based on the ramifications and consequences for juveniles who are arrested for drug
abuse or drug related crimes, much is to lose yet is not showing a significant difference in
deterring the behaviors or reducing the crimes. Between the years of 2001-2007, youths from the
ages of 10-17 years old who were arrested for drug abuse violations only decreased by 1-2%. In
2001, the arrest rate for juveniles was 12.8% and six years later, it was only 10.6%. That only
accounts for a 2% difference in six years (National Center for Juvenile Justice, 2009).
Based on the arrest rate of juveniles by the National Center for Juvenile Justice in
October 31, 2009, arrest rates did not change significantly. Between the year of 2000 and 2008,
there were 600 out of 100,000 youths arrested for drug abuse violations, which did not show a
significant difference of arrested youths in former or post-dated years. In 2000, the rate was
622.8, and eight years later the rate went to 540 per 100,000. This is a difference of 82 children
in eight years(National Center for Juvenile Justice, 2009).
Since drug abuse is a diagnosable mental illness, although the problem may not have
been initially planned to abuse drugs as a way of life, it happened and continues to affect
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 18
juveniles today. It is not to say that drug abuse offenders will not be helped. Some may not want
help now or is ready for it.
Problems to Consider
There are problems that may cause strict enforcement of the juveniles who abuse drugs
and refuse or don’t think they need help. Intervention can be mandated and alternatives made if
it’s not completed or continuous efforts are not made. At that point, incarceration may be an
option.
This indicates that the problem is there, the individual have been educated, assessed, and
addressed, but chooses not to follow through on professional recommendations or interventions
(SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007). One can only be helped if they want to be
helped. Excuses begin to surface and manipulation tends to be inevitable. In cases such as these
and documented evidence of interventions or lack of, other options, such as incarceration, may
be warranted. However, caution must be taken because drug abuse is still drug abuse and all
interventions are not for everyone; therefore, profession in the specialty field and the
qualifications of the counselor in all areas are vital to success.
The problem can sometimes lie within the individual who needs help and are willing to
get help and the individual who needs it and will not admit it or refuse to get help. The
individuals would be required to stick to it in order to give oneself the opportunity to change
their lives and not abuse drugs that can end up resulting in criminal behaviors or further health,
work or school related problems, including family and legal problems. Out of 20.8 million
people surveyed in 2008 who were classified as “needing help” for substance abuse, but not
receiving treatment in a specialty facility, accounts for 4.8% based on a 2005 National Survey of
SAMHSA.
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 19
Prison and jail are not drug abuse centers although they may have therapeutic community
facilities separate from inmates of no drug abuse violations. Although, after assessment of the
juveniles, it was reported that counselors and psychiatrists perceived that the juveniles needed
treatment for illicit drug and alcohol abuse. Out of one million people who felt they needed
treatment, but didn’t receive it was 233,000 or 23.3%. Report indicated that they made an effort
to get treatment; however the other 766,000 or 76.7% reported making no effort to get treatment
(SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007).
This case scenario was stable for a year, except now is the issue that the people who felt
they needed treatment, but did not receive it decreased from 380,000 persons in 2007 to 233,000
in 2008. The people who felt they needed treatment among those who were “classified” as
needing drug abuse treatment declined from 6.4% in 2007 to 4.8% in 2008. As a result more
juveniles denied the need for treatment as a result of needing it, but didn’t get it.
There were reasons, according to these studies, of why the denial of the need for
treatment. The number and percentage of youths who needed treatment for illicit drug and
alcohol use problems remained constant for a year. Later, only 143,000 juveniles needed and
received treatment in a specialty treatment facility out of 2 million juveniles needing treatment.
That resulted in 1.8 million youths who needed treatment, but did not receive it in a specialty
facility.
In the combination of data during the year of 2005 and 2008, there were the five most
often reported reasons for not receiving substance and alcohol abuse treatment among children
12 years and older who needed treatment, but didn’t receive it, yet counselors perceived the need
for treatment(SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007). Some of those reasons were that
they were not ready to stop using drugs, which accounted for 38.8%. 37.4% stated that there was
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 20
no health coverage, and therefore they couldn’t afford to get treatment. Other reasons were that
12.3% was concerned that there would be a negative effect on their job, 12% did not know where
to go for treatment or where to start looking, and 11% thought of what neighbors and friends
would think or say about them. 10% had no transportation, and 8.3% stated that there wasn’t a
need for treatment.
Based on the data discussed, how significant is incarceration of juveniles compared to
other methods of intervention. Data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics shows that drug abuse
related arrests continues to increase in adults (Levin & Langan, 2002, expression NCJ 193427).
It has not significantly decreased in juveniles, yet remains stable. Each year almost 100,000
inmates are arrested for drug abuse related crimes, and the numbers continue to rise. For
juveniles, the rate fluctuates from 10,000 to 20,000 inmates arrested for the same types of drug
abuse related crimes.
Based on data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics and the reentry trends in the United
States, the recidivism rate for drug abuse related crimes increased from about 50% in 1983 to
almost 70% in 1994. That continues to show the importance of treating the root cause of the
problems or crimes, and not just the crimes themselves. Continuing to incarcerate juveniles for
drug abuse crimes is showing no significant positive impact for the youths. However, it does
show that it appear to result in the increase in the adjudication process to treat them as adults to
“pay for their crimes”! This means that the ages of the juveniles who committed drug abuse
related crimes is decreasing and they are being tried as an adult.
There are several steps that can be taken to make attempts to deter juveniles from the
initial abuse of drugs as well as to intervene when drug abuse has already become a factor. Some
protective factors in making a positive impact on the juveniles and try to deter them from
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 21
criminal behavior is to implement and follow through on supportive programs for children and
teenagers, such as camps, sports, informative organizations, and needed help in other areas.
Interventions are important ways to try to prevent drug abuse by implementing or
improving the influence of risk factors and to encourage and enhance the effectiveness of
protective factors. To overlook the risk factors and try to implement protective factors is difficult
to achieve. It appears easier to try to cover up or input interventions or programs in place without
grasping the full picture; however, one is just as important as the other. Without getting to the
root cause of a situation or addressing risk factors, the process of elimination cannot take place
and the cycle of drug abuse and re arrest or re admittance will continue, unless other drastic
measures are taken.
This study is based on juveniles who are ages 12 to 17 years old and incarcerating the
juvenile offenders does not make a significant positive impact on the drug abuse related crimes
that are committed. Most, if not all of them, committed crimes while under the influence of
some kind of drug, or committed the crimes to obtain money for the drugs. It appears that if the
drug abuse decreases, so will the drug abuse related crimes committed by the juveniles decrease.
Drug abuse is not going to go away on its own. Based on the review, it will increase the
older juveniles get(National Center for Juvenile Justice, 2009). At that time it will no longer be
treated as juveniles, but as adults. The age of adjudication has changed before, and it may, if it’s
felt needed, change again. The lives of the juveniles are significantly impacted and put into the
criminal justice system before they can even learn how to be a child or youth.
Based on the literature review and the focus of this thesis, drug abuse is a diagnosable
illness. The abuse of drugs can hinder many areas in a person’s life, yet cannot be improved if no
interventions that are effective or helping the juvenile is being implemented. Incarceration of
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 22
juveniles who abuse drugs or commit drug abuse related crimes does not always appear to have a
positive significant effect on the youth. The problem remains when untreated or ineffectively
addressed. In addition to that, incarcerating juveniles for drug abuse puts additional negative
stigma on the youth before they reach the age of adulthood. The lives of the juveniles have been
impacted and some of the negative impacts may follow them for the rest of their lives.
On the other hand, since it doesn’t appear to make a huge difference whether to
incarcerate or mandate other forms of intervention, the youth should be given that opportunity.
The drug abuse, and not just the crime, should be the focused point for the juvenile. Education,
treatment, involvement, support, and motivation can go a long way with youth. They can be
taught that life will not always be what they imagine it to be and life is not always a bed of roses,
but it’s better to learn how to accept the things you cannot change, change the things you can,
and have the wisdom to know the difference.
Once the juvenile gets a criminal record, there is always a criminal record. The only
difference is whether it’s sealed or not depending on the adjudication process and the limits of
the law. Youths still have time to grow. Their lives are all they have and it should be valued as
such.
Methodology
In essence to restate the purpose of the thesis is to show that incarceration of juveniles
who abuse drugs does not make a significant difference on the effective method of intervention
used to reduce drug abuse or drug abuse related crimes. Although incarceration is one method
used for drug abuse offenders, it has been proven by various data bases and surveys that non-
incarceration of the same is also effective. There tends to be other favorable benefits for the
juveniles outside of prison walls than the appearance of the “snow ball effect” of incarceration
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 23
with limited means of intervention. The “snow ball effect” is when consequences of an action
continue to get bigger and bigger the longer it goes unaddressed or untreated. The larger it gets,
the harder it can be to ameliorate it or help things to improve. If risk factors of drug abuse in
juveniles are ignored, yet incarceration keeps growing or remaining constant, the end result will
also keep growing with ramifications that can become difficult to overcome or adjust.
The method that was used to demonstrate the hypothetical theory of incarceration verses
non incarceration was to use the hypothesis test and the one-tailed or two-tailed test for the
proportions of non-incarcerated drug abuse juveniles compared to incarcerated drug abuse
juveniles(Bachman & Paternoster, 2009, p. 314). Using this method will help to determine the
critical value of “z” within the critical region. This method was to show whether incarceration
had a significant impact on the rate of recidivism in juveniles due to drug abuse or drug abuse
related crimes. Computation was completed for a one-tailed test of alpha level .01 and a two-
tailed test of alpha level .01. This means that the confidence level of accuracy is 1 out of 100
chances of being accurate.
Independent random samples were used based on the data sets of the Bureau of Justice
and the Office of Juvenile and Delinquency Prevention data sets. Variables were taken primarily
from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services data sets and the American Psychiatric
Publishing and the American Psychiatric Association Services. Samples used were 100
incarcerated juveniles with a recidivism rate of 66.7% which included a population of 8.9% of
juveniles who were arrested for the abuse of drugs.
It is suspected that the sample of drug abuse offenders would have a lower recidivism
rate with non-incarceration methods of intervention that the 67% or incarceration recidivism rate.
Therefore, the following hypothesis statement is made:
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 24
1. H0: p =.67 or 67% þ = 67% n=100
H1: p ≠ .67 or 67% P = 8.9% of drug abuse population q= 1-p
2. Because of the size of the sample, a “z” test for proportions will be use with the “z”
distribution as the sampling distribution.
3. An alpha level of .01 will be used with a one-tailed test. The critical level of “z” at
this level is 2.33. The critical region are all values less than or equal to 2.33. The null
hypothesis will be rejected if z is less than or equal to 2.33.
4. Percents are converted back to proportions by dividing by 100.
a. Z = ^p-p/√p(q)/n
b. Z = 0.23-.089/√.089(1-.089)/100
c. Z =0.14/√.08/100
d. Z =0.14/√.0008
e. Z=0.14/.028
f. Z=.5 or 50%
5. Based on a z distribution curve, the obtained value of z is .50 standard deviations less
than the critical region; which indicated that the null hypothesis would be rejected
because the obtained critical value is less than the critical value of z. The recidivism
rate of incarcerated juveniles is .5 or 50%.
Now as we look at the rate for non-incarcerated juveniles and incarcerated juveniles
recidivism rate to determine if there is a significant difference. After one year, juveniles who
were rearrested for the same type of crime, which was drug abuse or drug abuse related crimes,
was compared to non-incarcerated juveniles who recidivated or returned to treatment during the
same period.
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 25
Using a non-directional two-tailed research hypothesis, it will be discovered whether
there is a significant difference in the recidivism rate of drug abuse or drug abuse related crimes.
The hypothesis is therefore stated as follows:
1. H0: p1 =p2
H1: p1 ≠ p2
2. Z test will be used again due to the sample size.
3. Alpha level will be .01, which for a two tailed test, the critical level of z is ± 2.58.
Because of the fact it is a two tailed test, the critical values lie on both sides of the z
distribution curve and consists of values less than or equal to 2.58 or greater than or
equal to 2.58.
4. It would result in failing to reject the null hypothesis if the obtained value in between
-2.58 and 2.58.
5. Using two proportion sample sizes, but the same estimated population proportion to
determine whether it is a significant difference.
6. Based on earlier documented data from the Bureau of Justice Survey, the proportion
of recidivated juveniles is .22 or 22% within one year. For non-incarcerated juveniles,
the proportion of recidivism was .024 in one year or 2.4%. The total sample
population is 120. Therefore, the calculations are as follows:
a. ^p (for total population) = n1 ^p1 + n2^p2/ n1 +n2
b. ^p =(60)(.22) +(60)(.024)/60 +60
c. =14.64/120
d. = 0.12
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 26
Now to find the standard error estimate of the difference between population proportions
is the following: √^p^q *√n1 +n2/n1n2
a. √.12 *.88√60 +60/60*60
b. =√.11*√120/3600
c. =.33 *√.033
d. =.33*.57
e. =0.188
Now to find the obtained z value, the numbers or simply plugged in formula whereas z
=^p1-^p2/ √^p^q*√n1 +n2/ n1n2
=.23 -.024/0.188
=.21/.188
=1.12
The obtained statistical value is 1.12. Because it lies between the two critical regions,
meaning 1.12 is greater than -2.58 and less than 2.58, the result is to fail to reject the null
hypothesis. This indicates that there is no significant difference in the recidivism rate between
incarcerated and non incarcerated juveniles who abuse drugs or commit drug abuse related
crimes.
As a result of the methods used to determine the recidivism rate of drug abuse offenders,
although it doesn’t show a significant difference in the rate of recidivism, there are still negative
impacts that affect the youth who are incarcerated and carry the name inmate, the charge of a
felony or misdemeanor, or the lack of the support needed to address the underlying problem.
Incarceration can have damaging effects such as the inability or difficulty to find housing, a
meaningful job, educational loans and grants or other important areas of daily living. With a
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 27
criminal record, especially a felony record, the inability to vote has also been affected. This may
be as a result of a problem that was either not addressed or address after the facts of drastically
changing the lives of juveniles as young as 12-17 years old.
Findings and Results
As a result of the research and secondary data collected it has been found that many
factors can contribute to the abuse of drugs and incarceration does not necessarily deter the
occurrence or the recidivism of those behaviors or crimes relating to them. There is an
association between depression and alcohol or illicit drug abuse. Based on a 2005 survey, 8.8%
of youth, which accounts for 2.2 million who used drugs has reported an experience of at least
one major episode of depression also known as (M.DE). 15.4% or 2.7 million youths who had
not previously abused alcohol began to use alcohol for the 1st time within a year. 7.6% of the
youth who had not used illicit drugs previously, which is 1.5 million youths, used at least one
illicit drug within a year. Out of all the youth who had not used alcohol or illicit drugs previously
were twice as likely to start using after an onset of a major depressive episode.
For example, youths who have not previously used alcohol accounted for almost
30% of those who experienced a major depressive episode compared to 14.5 % of
those who didn’t. Based on the activity levels discussed earlier, youths who
participated in zero activities accounted for 18.3%.Youth who participated in one
to three activities, the results were 11.9%. Youths who participated in four to six
and seven or more accounted for 9.4% and 6.8%, respectively. As can be seen, the
more youths are involved in activities of structure and constructive, the less likely
they may abuse drugs.
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 28
In 2008, the rate of illicit drug abuse was more than nine times higher among
youths age 12-17 who also smoked cigarettes in the past month. That is 49% of
youths compared to 5.3% who did not smoke. Youths who drank alcohol were at
a greater risk of abusing illicit drugs. Youths who were heavy drinkers or ones
who drank at least five or more drinks at any given occasion for five or more
days, were 60% in 2007 and 68% in 2008. That is an increase in drug abuse
within a year (SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007, par. 7).
Realizing the problems of drug abuse and related crimes that may occur to support the
habit of drug abuse, it must be realized how serious a problem it is and cannot afford to be
ignored. As discussed earlier, incarceration is not always the answer to help the juveniles in their
delinquent and drug abuse behaviors. However, the effectiveness of any intervention, whether
it’s incarceration or non-incarceration, such as faith based programs, outpatient and substance
abuse centers, will depend on the individual, the counselor, the support, and society as a whole.
Further studies and findings of recidivism for drug abuse was noted in the survey of the
American Psychiatric Service Publishing Incorporation. Out of 185 residents who were
hospitalized for drug abuse, 28 returned, which is 15%. 9% returned after rehabilitation. Out of
290 court ordered drug abuse offenders, there were 229 who returned, which was 78%. However,
only 2% of the juveniles returned when they volunteered and sought treatment on their own. That
was on 36 out of 1490 juveniles. However, based on the same supportive data base, the re arrest
of drug possession and other unspecified drug offense, not trafficking accounted for 93.1% (See
figure 3.)
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 29
Based on recidivism of prisoners release in 1994 in the report of the Bureau of Justice
Statistics Special Report, after four years of monitoring, the recidivism rate increased
significantly from 9.5%-32.6%. But after three years it rose from 50.4% to 66.7%.
Based on various data sets , secondary data surveys and computations of researched data,
drug abuse continues to be an issue. There may be causes and factors that affect the initial issue
of drug abuse and preventative methods to monitor and address the problem before it becomes a
crime or a violent crime. Measures have to be taken to protect the children, otherwise, the drugs
and the criminal justice system may do the opposite for them.
Limitations
The study has some limitations to consider. The research done was based on a sample
proportion of the incarcerated and non incarcerated population. It was also limited to youths ages
12-17. There was one study included that included the age of 10 years old and the arrest rate of
the same. Computations was based on data in the database of secondary analysis, so therefore
estimation and calculation was used to account for an equal amount of offenders, the rate of stay
and the length of post release prior to incarceration or re arrest. Other limitations did not take
into account of type of drugs abused when recidivate since some drugs are more addictive than
others.
The study focused on juveniles and did not have clear evidence that some juveniles by
age was excluded in the survey based on adjudication data. There was no way of knowing what
risk factors caused the recidivism or if one was worse than the other.
Discussion and Conclusion
One of the ways to reduce or try to prevent drug abuse or drug abuse related crimes is to
form support prevention programs. Some of those programs may be programs such as
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 30
delinquency prevention direct programs that teach youth how to prevent delinquency behaviors
and entering the juvenile justice system. There are also programs that are tailored to specific
based on ethnicity and culture groups. They can play an important role to help prevent substance
abuse behaviors. Some programs include skill building and tutoring that is free of charge or price
based on a sliding fee scale for low income youths.
According to Juvenile Justice Department and Prevention 2002, there are also programs
that primarily address the disproportionate number of minority juveniles who come in contact
with the juvenile justice system. Job training and skills will create projects and things
constructive that the youth can get involved in, including for the first time or non-violent
offenders. They can help to prepare for employment. It must be implemented and taking
seriously about the assessment, evaluation, and intervention of the youth who abuse drugs. Crime
is crime, and it’s not to ignore what have occurred; but focusing on crime, such as stealing to get
money to buy drugs or public intoxication, to name a few is not helping the juvenile or the
problem. However, it could add to it.
There should be increased education on the risk factors of drug abuse and how to support
the families of individuals who have no control of some of those factors. Increased knowledge to
the individuals and the support group to increase motivation and determination. Parental
involvement plays a very important role with the youth. Parents have to take the time and
sacrifice something they want for something they need, and that is to support, encourage, and be
a positive mentor or role model for the youths. Parents need education to in the aspects of risky
behaviors or at risk youth. The doors of communication must remain open if the goal is to reduce
drug abuse and drug abuse related crimes. Incarceration is one way, but it’s not the only way.
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 31
Incarceration should be the last resort after other measures have been exhausted. This is also
based on the cooperation of all involved.
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 32
References
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Blumenson, E., & Nilsen, E. S. (2002, May). How to construct an underclass, or How the war on
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Flores, J. R., & Slowikowski, J. (2009 October). OJJDP In Focus Community Prevention Grants
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Levin, D. J., & Langan, P. A. (2002). Recidivism of Prisoners (NCJ 193427) Retrieved from
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National Center for Juvenile Justice (2009).Juvenile Arrest Rates [Data file].Retrieved from
www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org/ojst
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from Samhsa: http://oas.samhsa.gov
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DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 34
Risk factors that impact drug abuse in juveniles age 12-17 years old
Figure 1 How level of activities affect juvenile drug abuse
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
No activities Participated in oneto three activities
Participated infour to sixactivities
Participated inseven or more
activities
Participation level of Activities
DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 35
Figure 2 The impact employment in juveniles have on drug abuse and related crimes for ages 12-17.
Figure 3 Recidivism for Juvenile drug abuse related offenses ages 12-17 years old
0
10
20
30
40
50
Alcohol useBinge alcohol
use Illicit drug useSmoked
cigarettes
Employment and the effects it has on drug abuse in juveniles
Employed Unemployed
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Incarceration Recidivism
Non Incarceration Recidivism
Missing data