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DueDiligence,ClimateMitigationMeasures,theLawoftheSeaandtheParisAgreement
ProfessorRonán LongDirector,GlobalOceanInstitute
WorldMaritimeUniversity,Sweden
ClimateChangeandLawoftheSea:AdaptingtheLawoftheSeatoAddresstheChallengesofClimateChange
CentreofInternationalLaw,NationalUniversityofSingapore,Singapore.13-14March2018.ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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Questions
1. Whatisthecontentoftheobligationofduediligencetoprotectandpreserve themarineenvironment?
2. DoestherequirementofduediligenceunderPartXIIoftheLOSCcreateanobligationtomitigatetheadverse impactsofhuman-inducedclimatechangeonthemarineenvironment?
3. Whatarethelegaldutiestoimproveclimateresiliencebyrestoringthemarineenvironment?
• Photosource:Shutterstock
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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• Question1 Whatisthecontentoftheobligationofduediligencetoprotectandpreserve themarineenvironment?
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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Overview1. Preliminary remarks
2. Jurisprudence&ILAStudies
a. PulpMillsontheRiverUruguay(ArgentinavUruguay)
b. ITLOSCases17&21c. AnnexVIISCSArb.Awardd. CostaRicav.Nicaragua (compensation)e. ILAStudyGrouponDueDiligencein
InternationalLaw(Reports2014,2016)• Photosource:Shutterstock
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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DueDiligence
1. Duediligenceisanobligationofconduct onthepartofasubjectoflaw
2. Thecriterionappliedinassessingwhetherasubjecthasmetthatobligationisthatoftheresponsible citizenorresponsiblegovernment
• MaxPlanckEncyclopediaofPublicInternationalLaw
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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Purpose
• Duediligenceisconcernedwithsupplyingastandardofcareagainstwhichfaultcanbeassessed
‘Itisastandardofreasonablecare,… thatseekstotakeaccountoftheconsequencesofwrongfulconductandtheextenttowhichsuchconsequences couldfeasiblyhavebeenavoided bytheStateorinternationalorganisationthateithercommissioned therelevantactorwhichomitted topreventitsoccurrence’
• ILAStudyGroupSecondReport(2016),p.2
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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Duediligenceisakeycomponentoftheobligationtopreventharm ininternationalenvironmental law
• CaseConcerningPulpMillsontheRiverUruguay, ArgentinavUruguay,Judgmentonthemerits, ICGJ425,20thApril2010.
1. Noharmprincipleentailsanobligation topreventharmtotheenvironment
2. Theobligation to‘preservetheaquaticenvironment,andinparticulartopreventpollution byprescribingappropriaterulesandmeasures’isanobligationtoactwithduediligenceinrespectofallactivitieswhichtakeplaceunderthejurisdictionandcontrolofeachparty
3. Mustadoptrules,exerciseenforcement andadministrativecontroloverpublicandprivateoperators.
• PrincipleofnoharmbreachedwhenaStatehasnotacteddiligentlyoveritsownactivities,stateownedenterprisesorprivateactivities[ILAStudyGroupSecondReport(2014),p.25]
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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Case No. 17.ResponsibilitiesandobligationsofStatessponsoringpersonsandentitieswithrespecttoactivitiesintheArea(Requestfor
AdvisoryOpinion)[2011] ITLOS Rep 10
• ExaminedthenatureofanobligationimposedonStates‘toensure’thatcontractorsengagedinseabedminingactivitiesintheAreacomplywiththeirobligationstoprotectthemarineenvironment
• Obligation‘toensure’ isnotanobligationtoachieve,ineachandeverycase,theprescribedresult.Ratheritisanobligationofconduct andduediligence
• MeansthatStateisobliged‘todeployadequatemeans,toexercisebestpossibleefforts,todotheutmost,toobtainthisresult’[paras110-111]
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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Attributesofduediligence
a. Context:varyovertime&newscientificknowledgeandtechnology
b. Relativeness:riskertheactivitythehigher thestandardofduediligence
c. Precautionaryapproach isanintegralpartofduediligence…once thereareplausibleindicationsofpotentialrisks [para.131]
d. ‘BestEnvironmentalPractices’[para.136]
e. Generalprovisionsonresponsibilityandliability applyequallytoallsponsoring States,whetherdevelopedordeveloping [para.158]
f. Stateonly liablefordamagescausedifitfailed tocarryoutduediligence[paras184-189]
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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CaseNo.21.Request foran advisoryopinionsubmitted bythe Sub-RegionalFisheriesCommission (SRFC), [2015] ITLOS Rep 10
• ObligationofflagStatestoensuretheirvesselsarenotIUUfishing isanobligationofduediligence
• Statesmustdeploy‘adequatemeans,toexercisebestpossible efforts,todotheutmost’topreventIUUfishing[para129]
• Ensurecompliancewithlawsandregulations[para129]
• Dutytocooperate=generalruleofinternational law(Mox Plantcase][para.140].
• LiabilityofflagStatearisesfromitsownfailuretocomplywithduediligenceobligations.
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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SCSArbitrationAward
1. Contentoftheobligationofduediligenceisinformedbyotherapplicablerulesofinternationallaw
2. Duediligenceincludestheobligationtoprotectandpreserveendangeredspeciesandthehabitatoffragileandvulnerablespeciesaswellasbiodiversity
3. Todeterminethataspeciesis‘endangered’oranecosystemis‘rareorfragile’,thetribunalconsideredCITES’annexes,aswellastheevidencepresentedbyscientificexperts,IUCNredlistandpeer-reviewedarticles
4. Theobligationto‘ensure’isanobligationofconduct.
5. Duediligencerequiresadoptionofappropriaterulesandmeasures, enforcement andtheexerciseofadministrativecontrol
6. Receivereportsofnon-compliance,mustinvestigate,remedythesituationandreport
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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• Question2 DoestherequirementofduediligenceundertheLOSCcreateanobligationtomitigatetheadverseimpactsofhuman-inducedclimatechangeonthemarineenvironment?
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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Mitigatingsourcesofpollution
• Lexspecialis – globalclimateregime
• AnnexVI1973/78MARPOL
– Setslimitsonsulphur oxide,nitrogenoxideemissionsandozonedepletingsubstancesfromshipsexhausts.
– Amendmentsweremadein2011toaddressoperationalandefficiencymattersaimedatreducingGHGemissionsfromships.
– IMOinitialstrategyforreductiongreenhousegasemissions,roadmap&long-termstrategy2023
– Othermeasures
Source:shipinsight.com
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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1982UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea
• Pollution - Article 1(1)(4)
• ‘the introduction by man, directlyor indirectly, of substances orenergy into the marineenvironment, which results or islikely to result in such deleteriouseffects as harm to living resourcesand marine life, hazards tohuman health’
• Definition wide enough to coverGHG [Boyle, Rayfuse, Oral, Scott,Stephens]
• Article192(Dutytoprotectandpreservethemarineenvironment)
• Article194(1)(fromany source)
• Art194(2)obligationtoensurethatactivitiesunderjurisdictionorcontroldonotcausedamagetootherStates=obligationofduediligence
• Article194(5)(includesrareorfragileecosystems)(coralreefs)
• Article194(3)Allsourcesofpollution
• Article207(land-based)
• Article212(onorthroughtheatmosphere)
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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Regulating&ControllingMarinePollution=obligationofduediligence
• Whataretheduediligencerequirements?
– Prevent,reduceandcontrolsourcesofpollutionthatcausemarineenvironmentaldamage,regulation,EIA,BAT,precautionaryapproach,andenforcement
• Whataretheapplicablerulesofinternationallaw?
– 1992UNFCCCobjectiveofstabilisationGHGintheatmosphere isbroadenoughtoapplytotheocean
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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WhatobjectivesapplyundertheParisAgreement?
• Article2(1)
– Holding theincreaseintheglobal averagetemperaturetowellbelow2°Cabovepre-industriallevelsandpursuingeffortstolimitthetemperatureincreaseto1.5°C
• Article4
– EachPartyshallprepare,communicateandmaintainsuccessivenationallydeterminedcontributionsthatitintendstoachieve.Partiesshallpursuedomesticmitigationmeasures,withtheaimofachievingtheobjectivesofsuchcontributions. =obligationofconduct
– Allowsflexibility inrelationtowhichGHGemissionsaretobereduced.
– ‘Ambitiousefforts’and‘demonstrateprogressionovertime’
– NDCs- 161mentionocean;14coastalStatesdonotmentionocean.
OceancommitmentsundertheParisAgreementGalloetal.NatureClimateChange7(11),833
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WhatdoestheduediligencerequirementsundertheLOSCrequireinrelationtomitigationmeasures?
• StandardofconductundertheLOSCisverygeneralunderArticles194&212
• DuediligencemeansthataStateisobliged‘todeployadequatemeans,toexercisebestpossibleefforts,todotheutmost’[paras110-111]
• Statesmusttakemeasuresthatare‘reasonablyappropriate’[para.120] inrelationtomitigation
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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DoesPartXIIoftheLOSCrequireStatestogofurtherthantheParisAgreement inrelationtomitigation?
• RejectedsimilarargumentsintheMox PlantthattheLOSCsetsahigherstandardthattheOSPARConventioninrelationtoland-basedpollutionofthemarineenvironment
• Alsoneedtoovercomeeconomicdevelopment&sovereignrightsovernaturalresourcearguments[UNFCCC,ParisAgreement&LOSCArt193]
• However,
• Article14- GlobalStocktaking
• Duediligencevariableconcept,varywithtime,newscientific knowledgeandtechnology
• MuchdependsonhowfarStatesgotoadoptspecificmeasurespertainingtoclimatechangeandtheocean
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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Somegoodnews!
• PeterThomson,UNSpecialEnvoyforOcean,introducesthelaunchoftheOceanPathwayPartnershipandcallsgovernmentsaroundtheworldforacommonactionontheprotectionofoceans.
• BringoceanintoUNFCCCprocessesandsustainaction
• BetterintegrationofoceanintheNDCs
• ROCA :Roadmapforoceanandclimateaction&OceanandClimateInitiativesAlliance
• 2019IPPCSpecialReportOceans,Climate andthe Cryosphere
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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• Question3 • Whatarethelegaldutiestoimproveclimateresilience byrestoringthemarineenvironment?
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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ImprovingClimateResilienceandDutytoRestore:NormativeBasisInternationalLaw
HardLaw HardLaw• ResponsibilityofStatesandinternationalorganizations✔
– CaseNo17,AreaAdvisoryOpinion(2011)ITLOSRep10,paras 195and198.• willdependonbothactualdamageandthe
technicalfeasibility ofrestoringthesituationtothestatusquoante
– CaseNo21,SRFCAdvisoryOpinion,Apr.2,2015(para208)
• Liability[UNCompensationCommission…developmentofnovelapproachesincludingabstracthabitatequivalencyanalysisforthelossofecologicalservices]✔
• DraftArticlesonStateResponsibilityforInternationallyWrongfulActs[Arts34&35Reparations&Restitution]✔
• UNFCCC[Art4(4))ParisAgreement–Preamble&Art5✔• StateandRegionalPractice[USA:EstuariesRestorationAct
2000][France:)• Emergingprinciplesofnon-regressionandecologicalintegrity• CostaRicav.Nicaraguacompensationcase
• UNCLOS[Art61(3)][Arts192,194(5),197] [Art235,139(2)]✔
• 1994ImplementationAgreementEironm ent al
– Draftminingcode– EnvironmentalManagementandMonitoringPlan
• UNFSA[Arts5(e),6(4),AnnexIIArt4]✔• CBD[Art8(f)(e)]✔
– Rehabilitateandrestore degradedecosystemsandpromotetherecoveryofthreatenedspecies,interalia,throughthedevelopmentandimplementationofplansorothermanagementstrategies
– CBDDecX.33,XI/21• OSPARConvention✔
– …conservemarineecosystemsand,whenpracticable,restoremarineareaswhichhavebeenadverselyaffected...[Art2(1)(a)]&AnnexVArt2]
• CMSArtV.1- restore themigratoryspeciesconcernedtoafavourableconservationstatus
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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CertainActivitiescarriedoutbyNicaragua intheBorderArea(CostaRicav.Nicaragua) - Questionofcompensation
2February2018
• Suchcompensationmayincludeindemnificationfortheimpairmentorlossofenvironmentalgoodsandservices andpaymentfortherestorationofthedamagedenvironment
• Paymentforrestorationaccountsforthefactthatnaturalrecoverymaynotalwayssufficetoreturnanenvironmenttothestateinwhichitwasbeforethedamageoccurred.
• Insuchinstances,activerestorationmeasuresmayberequiredinordertoreturntheenvironmenttoitspriorcondition,insofarasthatispossible.
• Internationallawdoesnotprescribeanyspecificmethodofvaluation
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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HowcantheBBNJ ImplementationAgreementnegotiationsmainstreamecologicalrestoration?
PrincipleCross-sectorialmanagementapproaches
AreaBasedManagementToolsincluding
MPAs
EIA/SEA/TBEA Capacity
Building&TechnologyTransfer
Liability&Compliance
Restoration
Options
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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Conclusions
• Duediligenceisakeycomponentoftheobligationtopreventharm
• Lawoftheseajurisprudencehascontributedsignificantlytoourunderstandingoftheconceptofduediligenceincludingthecontextualcircumstancesandparameterspertainingtoitsapplication
• Inordertodemonstratethatithasacteddiligently,a Statemustpreventforeseeable significantdamage,oratleasttominimise theriskofsuchharmfromhuman-inducedclimatechange
• Statesmusttakemeasures thatare‘reasonablyappropriate’inrespectofmarineenvironmenttomeetclimatechangeobjectives
• PartXV– DisputeResolution/AdvisoryJurisdiction
ProfessorRonánLong,[email protected]
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“…thattheoceans’carryingcapacityisnearoratitslimit.Itisclearthaturgentactiononaglobalscaleisneeded toprotecttheworld’soceansfromthemanypressurestheyface.”
FIRSTGLOBALINTEGRATEDMARINEASSESSMENT(2014)
ForewordbytheSecretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNations,
UNGA70/235,23December2015
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ProfessorRonán Long,[email protected]