Early Societies and Networks of the Eastern Mediterranean
Chapter 4
Second millennium B.C.E.
Egyptians, Mesopotamians empires grew in strength
Competed with one anotherSmaller societies developed influential ideasEstablished cities, states
Hebrews – created the base for three major religionsMinoans – became a flourishing society and
an economic bridge between western Asia and S.E. Europe
Mycenaean – built the first cities in Greece
Phoenicians – created an important new alphabet, established colonies in western Mediterranean, migration & trade fostered networks connecting many ancient societies
Greece – Greek migrants began building an important society
Regional Climate
Cool rainy winters Hot, dry summers Many hills encouraged the planting of olive
trees and grape vines Olive oil and wine became export crops People raised pigs, sheep and goats Sea – fostered boat building, maritime trade
“Cosmopolitan” era
• The Late Bronze Age in the Middle East - 1550-1200 B.C.E.• Diplomatic relations• Commercial contacts• Flow of goods & ideas• Elites enjoyed high standard of living
Egypt – New Kingdom
17th century B.C.E., the Middle Kingdom declined
1640 B.C.E. Hyksos conquered Egypt The Hyksos possessed military technologies
– horse-drawn war chariots, & bow made of wood & horn
The Hyksos assimilated with the Egyptians
Hyksos were expelled from EgyptEgypt inaugurated the New Kingdom 1532 – 1070 B.C.E.Became aggressive and expansionist stateExpanded its territory to Syria-Israel in the
north, and to Nubia in the southWon access to timber, gold and copper, taxes
and tribute, and a buffer zone
Egypt participated in the diplomatic and commercial networks
Egyptians soldiers, administrators, diplomats, and merchants exposed Egypt to exotic fruits & vegetables & new technologies
King Akhenaten
Amenhotep IV– 1353 – 1335 B.C.E.Referred to himself as Akhenaten – sought to
spread his belief in Aten as the supreme deityDeparted from traditional ways Challenged the supremacy of the chief god
Amon Questioned the power and influence of the
priests of AmonClosed the temples of other gods
Attempted to reassert the superiority of the king over the priests
Renew belief in the King’s divinityOnly the royal family could worship AtenThe Egyptian people were pushed to revere
the divine ruler
• Built a new capital city• Commissioned art work depicting the royal
family in unconventional way• Neglected Egyptian policy of conquests and
expansions• His reforms were resented by government
officials, priests, and some elite
• After Akenaten death: • The temples were reopened• Amon was reinstated as chief god• The capital returned to Thebes• The institution of kingship was weakened• Play to the advantage of the priests
The Ramessides Dynasty1323 B.C.E.
• General Haremhab seized the throne & established a new dynasty – the Ramessides
• Renew Egyptian policy of conquest and expansion
• Ramsses II – Ramsses the Great ruled for 60 years
• Built all over Egypt monumental buildings
Commerce and communication
• Ramsses II fought the Hittites at Kadesh• No territorial expansion • Egyptian & Hittites diplomats negotiated a
treaty (strengthened by Ramsses’ marriage to a Hittites princess)
• At issue: control of Syria-Israel
• New modes of transportation were introduced
• Horses were brought into Western Asia around 2000 B.C.E.
• Influenced the speed of travel and communication
• Horses contributed to the creation of large states & empires
• Soldiers & officials could cover great distances quickly
• Horse-drawn chariots became the primary instrument of war
• The team of a driver and an archer fired arrows with speed & force
• By 1500 B.C.E. people in Western Asia began using the Camel
• Camels traveled across barren terrain• Emergence of 1. New kind of desert nomad2. Creation of cross-desert trade routes
The Assyrian Empire 911-612 B.C.E.
• Neo-Assyrian Empire emerged in Western Asia in the tenth century B.C.E.
• The first to rule far away lands and diverse people
• Created the largest empire in the world
• The Assyrian homeland was in a hilly area of northern Mesopotamia
• Mild climate and greater rainfall• Exposed to raiders from mountains (E & N) • Farmers defended themselves from raiders• The peasants-farmers constituted the foot
soldiers of the Neo-Assyrian army
• The king followed the most important trade routes
• Controlled the international trade• Provided booty, prospect of tribute and taxes• Secured access to vital resources – iron, silver
• The king was the center of the Assyrian universe
• The gods chose the king as their ruler• All the land belonged to him, and all his
subjects were his servants• Spies brought the king information from
every corner of the empire
• The king was the chief diplomat- He made all the decisions – appointed officials- Heard complaints- Received envoys and high ranking
government officials- The commander and chief
- Supervised the state religion- Ashur was the chief god - He initiated public and private rituals- Supervised the upkeep of the temples- Consulted the gods through rituals- All state actions were carried out in the name
of Ashur
• Government propaganda secured people’s support for military campaigns
• Royal inscriptions were posted throughout the empire boasting military victories
• Inscription emphasized the king charisma• Severe punishments to anyone who resisted
the king
Conquests and Control
• Superior military organization and technology
• Men served in return for grants of land• Peasants and slaves were donated to the
army by their landowners• By 744-727 Tiglathpileser created a
professional army
• Troops were divided to: 1. Armed bowmen and slingers2. Armored spearmen3. Cavalry equipped with bows/spears4. Four-man chariots5. Messengers & signal fires provided long-
distant communication6. Network of spies gathered intelligence
• The Assyrians used terror tactics – to discourage rebellion
• Swift and harsh retribution• Mass deportation and resettlement
elsewhere• The exiled worked on royal/noble estates• Opened new land for agriculture• Built new palaces and cities
Difficulties
• Vast distance• Varied landscapes• Diverse people• Control of the cities was tight• Control of rural areas - difficult
• The Assyrians exploited the wealth & resources of their subjects
• Wars and administration were funded by plunder & tribute
• Wealth from the periphery was sent to the city
• The king and nobility grew rich
• The state invested in the infrastructure • Expansion of the capital & religious centers at
Ashur• New royal cities - encircled by high walls
containing ornate palaces and temples
Assyrian Society
• Three classes – 1. Free landowning citizens - elite2. Farmers and artisans attached to the estate
of the king/rich landowner, merchants3. Slaves – debtors, prisoners of war
• The elite –• They were bound to the king by oaths of
obedience, expectation of rewards, fear of punishment
• The merchant classes- Thrived on expanded long-distance
commerce- Imported luxury goods – fine textiles, dyes,
gems, ivory- Silver – was the basic medium of exchange
• No preferable treatment: • Assyrian citizens, deportees, or immigrants
were referred to as “human beings”• All entitled to the same legal protection• All liable for the same labor and military
service
• Some Assyrian temples had libraries• The library of Ashurbanipal contained official
documents, literary, & scientific texts• Some documents are originals, some copies• “House of Knowledge” – an academy that
attracted learned men to the royal court
The Aegean World2000 – 1100 B.C.E.
The influence of Mesopotamia and Egypt was felt as far as the Aegean Sea
Emergence of the Minoan civilization Emergence of the Mycenaean civilization
• The landscape of southern Greece and the Aegean islands is mostly rocky and arid
• There is limited arable land suitable for grain, grapevines, and olive trees
• Small plains lying between ranges of hills – suitable for herds of sheep and goats
• Natural harbors and small islands in close proximity to each other
• Very little natural resources• The Aegean peoples had to import metal,
timber, and food supplies* The rise and the decline of these two
civilizations, were related to their commercial and political relations with other peoples in the region
The Minoan civilization
• Minoan –native of the island of Crete • Strategic location• Center for sea trade – Egypt, western Asia,
Southeastern Europe• Traded extensively with Sicily, Greece, the
Aegean Islands
• By 3000 B.C.E. used copper• Pioneered a mix agriculture – grape vine,
olive trees, grain
The Minoan had:1. Centralized government2. Writing system – not deciphered 3. Record keeping4. Monumental buildings5. Bronze metallurgy
The Minoans were influenced by Egyptian, Syrian, and Mesopotamian architecture:
Extensive palace complexes, government building
The palace complexes had high-quality indoor plumbing
Absence of fortifications at the palace site
The Minoans had a different concept of authority -
They did not have a king~1630 B.C.E. cities on the island were
destroyed
Art
Colorful frescos on walls of palaces portrays women engaged in conversation or watching rituals or entertainment
Statuettes of women with elaborate headdresses and serpents spiraling around their limbs suggest fertility goddesses
• Minoan vases depicting plants with swaying leaves may reflect a delight in beauty and order of the natural world
Mycenaean Greece
• Became an important power between 1600-1200 B.C.E.
Mycenae was built on a hilltop, surrounded by high fortification walls
Contained the palace and administrative center
• State controlled economy - Recorded people, animals, products and objects
• The government organized grain production & controlled the wool industry and the distribution to the people
• Warrior society – conquered Crete, all of southern Greece and the Aegean island
• Formed an empire• Collected taxes and tribute
• Continued Minoan trade networks• Dispatched ships to Sicily, Italy, Spain and the
Black Sea They traded wine and olive oil They exported weapons, slaves, and mercenary
soldiers May have transported goods of other people Minoan & Mycenaean imported amber, ivory,
grains, gold, copper and tin
• Spread bronze technology Cultural uniformity of all Mycenae centers Similar in shapes, decorative styles,
techniques of buildings, tombs, utensils, tool, clothing and work of art
• By 1200 B.C.E. – collapse• “Sea Peoples” – pillaged, disrupted trade
The Fall of Late Bronze Civilizations
• Around 1200 B.C.E. large numbers of people were on the move throughout the Middle East
• The demise of the Hittites kingdom in Anatolia
• The tide of destruction moved south into Syria, destroying Ugarit
• By 1250 B.C.E. the Philistines -“Sea People”- (hence the name Palestine) invaded Israel who was under Egyptian’s control
• Egypt lost all its territories in Syria-Israel• Egypt lost contact with the rest of western
Asia, and Nubia• According to Egyptian inscription, the
invaders were Greeks
• The end of the Mycenaean civilization illustrates the interdependence of the major centers of the Late Bronze Age
• Collapse in the political, economic and social realms
• The Greek language persisted, so was the religion
• One thousand years later people continued to worship gods mentioned in the Linear B tablets
• People continued to make vessels
Israel2000-500 B.C.E.
The Hebrews, a Semitic people, were one of many groups of pastoral nomads
Engaged in herding and caravan traffic, became sedentary, agricultural people
The Hebrews were led by powerful men known as patriarchs
Their monarchy lasted less than a centuryThe Hebrew contribution to religious history,
especially to Christian and Islamic traditions, exceeded that of either Mesopotamians or Egypt
• The history of Israel is marked by two grand & interconnected events
1. Developed complex political & social institutions
2. Integrated into the commercial & diplomatic networks of the Middle East
Transformed the strict cult of a desert god into the concept of a single, all powerful,
and all-knowing deity
Created ethical & intellectual traditions that underlie the beliefs and values of Judaism, Christianity, and, to a lesser extent, Islam
Israel is a crossroad, linking Anatolia, Egypt, Arabia and Mesopotamia
Its geographical location has given Israel an importance in history out of all proportion to its size
Origins, Exodus, & Settlement
- Information on the Israelites comes from :1. Archeological excavations2. Annals of Egypt & Assyrian3. The Hebrew Bible
-
• Tenth century B.C.E. traditions were written down in a script
• The text we have today is from the fifth century B.C.E.
• The spoken language was Hebrew• It is a Semitic language (related to Phoenician
& Aramaic)
• The Hebrews trace their ancestry as a people back to Abraham -2000 B.C.E.
• His two sons, Isaac and Ishmael, are considered the spiritual ancestors of three monotheistic religions – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
• Abraham was born into a polytheistic world – but he recognized one supreme god
• “Covenant” – pact with the Israelite’s god “Yahweh”
• Joseph was able to help his people when drought struck Israel and forced the Israelite to migrate to Egypt
• The Egyptians feared the Israelites, and reduced them to slaves, building projects for Pharaoh
• In the thirteenth century the “exodus” from Egypt, led by Moses, took place
. The Egyptians are complaining about Apiru- Scholars believe there is a connection between the similar sounding terms Apiru and Hebrew 3. The period of the Israelite slavery in Egypt coincided with the era of ambitious building programs launched by the New Kingdom pharaohs
• Probably oral tradition may have preserved memories of a real migration from Egypt
• Israelites wandered in the Sinai desert 40 years
• Covenant with Yahweh: they would be his “Chosen People”- if they will worship him
exclusively
• Moses is believed to be the founder of the Jewish religion
• Moses gave his name to a code of laws, including the Ten Commandments, by which the Hebrews governed themselves
• These are the basic tenets of Jewish belief & practice:
• The commandments prohibited: murder adultery theftlyingenvy
• It demanded: 1. Respect for parents 2. Rest from work on the seventh day - Sabbath
• The Bible tells how Joshua led the Israelites into the land of Canaan
• The “Children of Israel” were divided to 12 tribes
• Each tribe installed itself in a different part of the country- was led by a chief/chiefs
• These rulers had limited power – 1. Mediated disputes2. Saw to the welfare & protection of the
people
• Sagacious people were appointed “Judges”• Built a shrine on a hill near Shiloh • The shrine housed the Ark of the Covenant –• A scared chest containing the tablets that
Yahweh had given Moses
Rise of the Monarchy
• 1200 B.C.E. – time of trouble in the Mediterranean
• Philistines came to the area, settled along the coastal plain of Israel – frequent conflicts
• Samuel recognized the need for a stronger central authority to lead the Israelites against the Philistine city-states
• Saul was anointed as the first king of Israel-1020 B.C.E.
King David
• 1000-960 B.C.E. David was chosen as the second king of Israel
• He oversaw Israel’s transition from a tribal confederacy to a unified monarchy
1. Built a capital city – Jerusalem outside the tribal boundaries 2. Brought the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem3. Made the city a religious & political center of the
kingdom
1. Built a capital city – Jerusalem outside the tribal boundaries 2. Brought the Ark of the Covenant to
Jerusalem3. Made the city a religious & political center of
the kingdom
4. Conducted a census to facilitate the collection of taxes5. Created a standing army6. Won a string of military victories7. Expanded Israel’s borders 8. Equality – no one is above the law
King Solomon960-920 B.C.E.
• Marked the high point of the Israelite monarchy
• Alliances and trade linked Israel with near and distant lands
• Wealth was accumulated through military and commercial ventures
• Lavish court life• Sizable bureaucracy
• Chariot army made Israel a regional power• Ambitious building program employing slaves
and citizens• Solomon built the First Temple in Jerusalem• Israel had a central shrine• An impressive set of rituals • The Temple priests became powerful and
wealthy class
• The expansion of Jerusalem• New commercial opportunities• Increasing prestige of the Temple hierarchy• Changed the social composition of Israelite
society• -A gap between urban and rural, rich and
poor polarized a people that were homogeneous
• Israel split into two kingdoms:1. The northern kingdom – Israel2. The southern kingdom – Judah
- In 722 B.C.E. the Assyrians conquered Israel and resettled its inhabitants elsewhere in the empire
• New settlers were brought to Israel from Syria, Babylon, and Iran
• The newcomers changed the area’s ethnic, cultural, and religious character
• The kingdom of Judah survived a century longer
• In 586 king Nebuchadnezzar – Babylon-conquered the kingdom of Judah and exiled its king, the aristocracy and skilled workers to the Euphrates area
The bitterness of the “Babylonian captivity” Was reflected in a Hebrew Psalm: “By the rivers of Babylon there we sat down, yea we wept when we remembered Zion” Psalm: 137
• Most of the deportees prospered in the Babylonian captivity
• By mid century Cyrus the Great, conquered Babylon
• The exile ended in 539, when the Persian allowed the Jews to return to Israel
- Most of the deportees elected to remain in Babylon – “Diaspora”
• Jews who went back to Israel in the later 6th century B.C.E., rebuilt a Second Temple on Temple Mount in Jerusalem
• The Deuteronomic Code was drafted – law & conduct
• 5th century B.C.E. the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was compiled
63 C.E. Israel was conquered by the Roman Empire
In 70 C.E. 1. the Second Temple was destroyed 2. revolt against Roman’s rule and authority 3. the Jews were dispersed again
• From that time until the establishment of modern Israel in 1948 C.E. there was no independent Jewish state in Israel
Israelite family
Lived in extended family Marriage was arranged by the parent Male heirs were of paramount importance First born male received a double share of
inheritance
Any couple could adopt a child If a man died childless, his brother was
expected to marry his widow and sire an heir
Women
Women provided a vital portion of the goods and services that sustained the family
Women were respected, enjoyed equality with their husbands
Could not inherit Could not initiate a divorce If caught in extramarital relations – put to
death
• Working-class women labored in agriculture, herding, caring for the house, and children
• In urban centers – women worked outside their home as cooks, bakers, perfumers, wet nurses, singers
• Few women reached position of influence
“wise women”- composed sacred texts in poetry and prose
Because of male bias in the Hebrew Bible the women status declined as Israelite
society became more urbanized
Hebrew Religion &World History
• The religious history of the Hebrews, their ethical code, makes them memorable in world history
• The Hebrew developed four religious concepts:• Monotheism• Morality• Messianism• Meaning in history
Monotheism
Monotheism developed in two stages:While polytheism remained influential for
some centuries among other peopleThe Hebrews worshiped a single god YahwehYahweh made a “covenant” with their earlier
patriarchThis covenant was reinforced with the Ten
Commandments
Obey Yahweh, and he will protect themThis form of monotheism did not deny the
existence of other gods, but the Hebrews had only one
Over time, asserted there is only ONE GOD Yahweh for all people
Morality
It is not enough to obey the Bible’s social and ritual commandments
Following Yahweh meant leading moral life refraining from lying, stealing, adultery, and
persecution of the poor and oppressed
Mesianism
The belief that God had given the Hebrew people a special mission in the world
Messianism acquired a broad spiritual meaning of bringing proper ethical behavior to all peoples
• “I will give you as a covenant to the people, as a light to the nations, to open blind eyes, to bring out prisoners from prison, those who sit in darkness”
Isaiah 42:6-7, Holy Bible
Meaning in History
History itself has meaning and it moves forward in a progressive, linear fashion
Yahweh acted in history by making specific agreements with particular individuals
Human beings worked out their salvation by choosing good over evil
Gave birth to the idea of progress, the notion that the future will be better than the past
• Phoeniciaand
the Mediterranean 1200-500 B.C.E.
By 1200 B.C.E. the Middle East entered a violent period and mass deportation
Ancient Phoenicians who referred to themselves as Can’ani- migrated into the interior of Syria
Can’ani – settled in the interior of SyriaIsraelites – settled in the interior of IsraelPhilistines – occupied the coastPhilistines introduced iron-based metallurgy
Small city-states: Byblos - distribution center for cedar timber,
and papyrus Tyre – access to silver, food, and trade routes
(E/S)
Weakness – depended on food and fresh water supplies
All city-states turned to seaborne commerceThriving trade - cedar, pine, metals, papyrus,
incense, wine, spices, salted fish, textile, ivory
• Accumulated wealth• Important role in International politics• Rulers of the city-states were leading merchant
families• Preserved autonomy 1. Playing the great powers off against one
another2. Accepted subordinate relationship when
necessary
• The Phoenician developed an “alphabetic” system of writing
• The Greeks added symbols for vowel sounds• Created the first truly alphabetical system of
writing
• Constant conflict with the Greeks over colonies, trade
• Both fought for control of Sicily –brutal wars• Carthage – a Phoenician colony controlled all
of Sicily by mid 3rd century B.C.E.
Carthage
o Established around 814 B.C.E.o Strategic positiono Located between hilltop citadel and two
harborso Controlled the middle portion of the
Mediterranean
• The wealthiest and strongest Phoenician outpost
• Autocratic city government – political instability
• Differences in between the Phoenician settlers and the native Berbers
• Frequent wars with the Greeks
• 425 B.C.E. – expedition to North Africa• Seeking markets, route to Asia• Founded trading posts in Morocco
• Created an empire• Third century B.C.E. – controlled Spain, much
of the north African coast, the islands Sardinia, Corsica
o City’s central square housed government buildings
o Magistrates heard legal cases outdooro Judges – elected from the elite groupo Served as head of state
o Senate – leading merchant families, served for life
o Formulated policies, made decisionso Assembly of the citizens o – elect officialso - vote on important issueo The ruling class – shared the wealth
Policy
o Protected sea laneso Gained access to raw materialo Claimed waters of western Mediterranean –
its owno Signed treaties with other nation
o Carthage imported goods – textiles, animal skins, slaves, food
o Reexported raw material – silver, iron, tin, lead
o Carthage was one of the largest cities in the world (population 400,000)
o Ethnic diversity – Phoenicians, indigenous peoples, immigrants
War and Religion
o Allowed city-states in their “empire” to be independent
o These city-states looked for military protection, and supported Carthage foreign policy
o Sardinia under control – safeguard their agriculture, metal and manpower resources
o Citizens were not required to serve in the army
o Little to fear from North African populationo Relied on mercenaries o Separation between the army and civilian
government
o Gods – Baal Hammon – storm-godo Tanit – female fertility figureo Elite – sacrifice their own male children in
time of crisiso Tophets – walled enclosures where
thousands of small, sealed urns lay buried
• Plutarch – 100 C.E.“The Carthaginians are a hard and Gloomy people, submissive to theirRulers and harsh to their subjects,
Running to extremes of cowardice in timesOf fear and of cruelty in time of anger;
They keep obstinately to their decisions, Are austere, and care little for amusement or
The grace of life.”
Conclusion
• The Late Bronze Age expansion of commerce and communication – stimulated the emergence of new civilizations
• The interdependence of the societies of the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean made them vulnerable for destructions and disorder
• The entire region slipped into a “Dark Age” –• Isolated• Stagnated • Decline lasted several centuries