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ECS 152A
1. Introduction
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A Communications Model• Source
—generates data to be transmitted
• Transmitter—Converts data into transmittable signals
• Transmission System—Carries data
• Receiver—Converts received signal into data
• Destination—Takes incoming data
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Communications Tasks
Transmission system utilization
Addressing
Interfacing Routing
Signal generation Recovery
Synchronization Message formatting
Exchange management Security
Error detection and correction Network management
Flow control
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Simplified Communications Model - Diagram
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Simplified Data Communications Model
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Networking• Point to point communication not usually
practical—Devices are too far apart—Large set of devices would need impractical
number of connections
• Solution is a communications network—Wide Area Network (WAN)—Local Area Network (LAN)
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Wide Area Networks• Large geographical area• Crossing public rights of way• Rely in part on common carrier circuits• Alternative technologies
—Circuit switching—Packet switching—Frame relay—Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
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Circuit Switching• Dedicated communications path
established for the duration of the conversation
• e.g. telephone network
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Packet Switching• Data sent out of sequence• Small chunks (packets) of data at a time• Packets passed from node to node
between source and destination• Used for terminal to computer and
computer to computer communications
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Frame Relay• Packet switching systems have large
overheads to compensate for errors• Modern systems are more reliable• Errors can be caught in end system• Most overhead for error control is stripped
out
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Asynchronous Transfer Mode• ATM• Evolution of frame relay• Little overhead for error control• Fixed packet (called cell) length• Anything from 10Mbps to Gbps• Constant data rate using packet switching
technique
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Local Area Networks• Smaller scope
—Building or small campus
• Usually owned by same organization as attached devices
• Data rates much higher• Usually broadcast systems• Now some switched systems and ATM are
being introduced
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LAN Configurations• Switched
—Switched Ethernet• May be single or multiple switches
—ATM LAN—Fibre Channel
• Wireless—Mobility—Ease of installation
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Metropolitan Area Networks• MAN• Middle ground between LAN and WAN• Private or public network• High speed• Large area
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NetworkingConfiguration
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Protocol Architecture
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Need For Protocol Architecture• E.g. File transfer
—Source must activate comms. Path or inform network of destination
—Source must check destination is prepared to receive
—File transfer application on source must check destination file management system will accept and store file for his user
—May need file format translation
• Task broken into subtasks• Implemented separately in layers in stack• Functions needed in both systems• Peer layers communicate
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Key Elements of a Protocol• Syntax
—Data formats—Signal levels
• Semantics—Control information—Error handling
• Timing—Speed matching—Sequencing
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Protocol Architecture• Task of communication broken up into
modules• For example file transfer could use three
modules—File transfer application—Communication service module—Network access module
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Simplified File Transfer Architecture
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A Three Layer Model• Network Access Layer• Transport Layer• Application Layer
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Network Access Layer• Exchange of data between the computer
and the network• Sending computer provides address of
destination• May invoke levels of service• Dependent on type of network used (LAN,
packet switched etc.)
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Transport Layer• Reliable data exchange• Independent of network being used• Independent of application
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Application Layer• Support for different user applications• e.g. e-mail, file transfer
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Protocol Architectures and Networks
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Addressing Requirements• Two levels of addressing required• Each computer needs unique network
address• Each application on a (multi-tasking)
computer needs a unique address within the computer—The service access point or SAP—The port on TCP/IP stacks
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Protocols in Simplified Architecture
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Protocol Data Units (PDU)• At each layer, protocols are used to
communicate• Control information is added to user data
at each layer• Transport layer may fragment user data• Each fragment has a transport header
added—Destination SAP—Sequence number—Error detection code
• This gives a transport protocol data unit
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Protocol Data Units
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Network PDU• Adds network header
—network address for destination computer—Facilities requests
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Operation of a Protocol Architecture
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Standardized Protocol Architectures• Required for devices to communicate• Vendors have more marketable products• Customers can insist on standards based
equipment• Two standards:
—OSI Reference model• Never lived up to early promises
—TCP/IP protocol suite• Most widely used
• Also: IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA)
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OSI• Open Systems Interconnection• Developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO)• Seven layers• A theoretical system delivered too late!• TCP/IP is the de facto standard
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OSI - The Model• A layer model• Each layer performs a subset of the
required communication functions• Each layer relies on the next lower layer
to perform more primitive functions• Each layer provides services to the next
higher layer• Changes in one layer should not require
changes in other layers
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OSI Layers
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The OSI Environment
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OSI as Framework for Standardization
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Elements of Standardization• Protocol specification
—Operates between the same layer on two systems
—May involve different operating system—Protocol specification must be precise
• Format of data units• Semantics of all fields• allowable sequence of PCUs
• Service definition—Functional description of what is provided
• Addressing—Referenced by SAPs
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Service Primitives and Parameters• Services between adjacent layers
expressed in terms of primitives and parameters
• Primitives specify function to be performed
• Parameters pass data and control info
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OSI Layers (1)• Physical
—Physical interface between devices
• Data Link—Means of activating, maintaining and
deactivating a reliable link—Error detection and control—Higher layers may assume error free
transmission
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OSI Layers (2)• Network
—Transport of information—Higher layers do not need to know about underlying
technology—Not needed on direct links
• Transport—Exchange of data between end systems—Error free—In sequence—No losses—No duplicates—Quality of service
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OSI Layers (3)• Session
—Control of dialogues between applications—Dialogue discipline—Grouping—Recovery
• Presentation—Data formats and coding—Data compression—Encryption
• Application—Means for applications to access OSI
environment
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Use of a Relay
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TCP/IP Protocol Architecture• Developed by the US Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its packet switched network (ARPANET)
• Used by the global Internet• No official model but a working one.
—Application layer—Host to host or transport layer—Internet layer—Network access layer—Physical layer
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Physical Layer• Physical interface between data
transmission device (e.g. computer) and transmission medium or network
• Characteristics of transmission medium• Signal levels• Data rates• etc.
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Network Access Layer• Exchange of data between end system
and network• Destination address provision• Invoking services like priority
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Internet Layer (IP)• Systems may be attached to different
networks• Routing functions across multiple
networks• Implemented in end systems and routers
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Transport Layer (TCP)• Reliable delivery of data• Ordering of delivery
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Application Layer• Support for user applications• e.g. http, SMPT
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OSI v TCP/IP
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TCP• Usual transport layer is Transmission Control
Protocol—Reliable connection
• Connection—Temporary logical association between entities in
different systems
• TCP PDU —Called TCP segment—Includes source and destination port (c.f. SAP)
• Identify respective users (applications)• Connection refers to pair of ports
• TCP tracks segments between entities on each connection
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UDP• Alternative to TCP is User Datagram
Protocol• Not guaranteed delivery• No preservation of sequence• No protection against duplication• Minimum overhead• Adds port addressing to IP
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TCP/IP Concepts
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Addressing level• Level in architecture at which entity is
named• Unique address for each end system
(computer) and router• Network level address
—IP or internet address (TCP/IP)—Network service access point or NSAP (OSI)
• Process within the system—Port number (TCP/IP)—Service access point or SAP (OSI)
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Trace of Simple Operation• Process associated with port 1 in host A
sends message to port 2 in host B• Process at A hands down message to TCP
to send to port 2• TCP hands down to IP to send to host B• IP hands down to network layer (e.g.
Ethernet) to send to router J• Generates a set of encapsulated PDUs
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PDUs in TCP/IP
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Some Protocols in TCP/IP Suite