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Educational Research:Educational Research:Post-analysis Considerations, Post-analysis Considerations, Preparing and Evaluating a Research Preparing and Evaluating a Research ReportReport
EDU 8603
Educational Research
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.
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Completing a research study is not the terminus of the research process……data must be verified and stored…results must be interpreted…the research report must be written
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In particular, computer analyses must be checked very carefully…
…inputting mistakes lead to erroneous results
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Verifying the data...Verifying the data...
The data must be double-checked, coding procedures verified, accuracy of computations examined, and the reasonableness of the findings evaluated
…the research needs to find errors before reviewers, editors, and readers of scholarly journals do
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Storing the data...Storing the data...
After verifying the accuracy of the data, the researcher must label, organize and file the data in a safe place…the original data may be subsequently needed by
the researcher or other researchers who may wish to examine the data utilizing different statistical techniques
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Interpreting research results...Interpreting research results...
The results of statistical analyses need to be interpreted in terms of…
…the purpose of the study…the original research hypothesis…and with respect to other studies
that have been conducted in the same area of research
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hypothesized resultshypothesized results......…the researcher must describe
adequately what statistics indicate about null hypothesis
…the issue concerns statistical statistical significancesignificance and why the researcher accepts/rejects the null hypothesis
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unhypothesized resultsunhypothesized results......…during the research process an
apparent relationship may emerge that was not previously hypothesized
…collect and analyze data on these unforeseen relationships; present the results, but do not change or add to the original hypothesis
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…instead, use the unhypothesized results as the basis for a later study designed specifically to test the new hypothesis
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statistical issuesstatistical issues......…valid inferences require that the
sample be representative of the population
…valid inferences also require that the conditions (or assumptions) underlying the statistical procedure are met
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…otherwise, bias enters into the statistics used and the research findings and, hence, the generalizations from them are weakened if not rendered meaningless
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methodological issuesmethodological issues......…ignoring measurement error…ignoring low statistical power…performing multiple comparisons
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measurement errormeasurement error......…measurements are seldom error-free…large amounts of measurement error
hamper the ability to find statistically significant research results
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statistical powerstatistical power......…the probability that a Type II error is
avoided
…however, lowering statistical power increases the likelihood that the researcher will overlook or miss the outcome desired
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statistical power depends upon four interrelated factors…
…the significance level selected
…the direction of the significance test
…the sample size
…the effect size (i.e., the degree of the departure from the null hypothesis)
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strategies for estimating the effect size….
…select a cut-off score below which an effect size is judge unimportant
…choose conventional, generally agreed upon definitions of small, medium, and large effect sizes
…use the effect sizes of studies of the same phenomenon
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to increase power….
…(a priori) increase the significance level
…(a priori) increase the sample size
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the strongest support for a research hypothesis comes from replication…
…as the study is repeated with different participants in the same or different settings
…which increases the generalizability of the findings
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The matter of “significance”...The matter of “significance”...
The fact of statistical significancestatistical significance does not automatically mean that a study’s results have any practical practical significancesignificance
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statistical significancestatistical significance......…the results of the study are likely to
occur by chance a certain percentage of the time
…the observed statistical relationship or differences is probably a real difference, but not necessarily an important one
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practical significancepractical significance......…the results of the study are able to
applied or used by practitioners or clinicians in their particular setting
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Preparing a research report...Preparing a research report...
After verifying, storing, and interpreting the data, the researcher begins the process of writing the final report……which requires outlining and
providing details for the general sections
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Elements of a research report…Elements of a research report…
1. preliminary pages2. main body
3. appendices
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1) preliminary pages…
…table of contents…list of tables and figures…abstract
…title page…acknowledgements page
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title pagetitle page......…indicates the title of the report, the
author’s name, the requirement being fulfilled, the name and location of the institution, the date of submission of the report
…states the purpose of the study as succinctly as possible
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acknowledgements pageacknowledgements page......…expresses an author’s appreciation
to persons who have contributed significantly to the completion of the report
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table of contentstable of contents......…provides an outline indicating on
which page each major section (or chapter) and subsection begins
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list of tables and figureslist of tables and figures......…gives the number and title of each
table and figure and the page on which it can be found
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abstractabstract......…a statement summarizing the basic purposes
of the study, including: the problem investigated, types of participants and instruments, the design, the procedures, the major results, as well as the major conclusions
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2) main body…
…results…discussion…references
…introduction…method
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introductionintroduction......…a well-written description of the
problem, a review of related literature, and a definition of terms
…should lead logically to the statement of the hypothesis
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methodmethod......…a description of the participants,
instruments, design, procedures, assumptions, and limitations
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resultsresults......…describes the statistical techniques
or qualitative interpretations that were applied to the data and the results of the analysis
…information about the process applied during data analysis should be provided
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discussiondiscussion......…identifies the agreement or disagreement
of the findings with previous results obtained by other researchers in other studies or the hypotheses stated at the start of the study
…identifies the theoretical and practical implications of the findings and makes recommendations for future research or future action
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referencesreferences......…a listing of all sources, alphabetically
by authors’ last names, directly used in writing the report
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3) appendices……information and data that are
pertinent to the study that either are not important enough to be included in the main body of the report or are too lengthy
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Some general rules for writing…...format according to APA Publication Manual (5th edition)
…use clear, simple, straight-forward style, including correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation
…learn from the corrections provided on your 8603 exercises
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Evaluating research reports…Evaluating research reports…
requires the development of a set of skills that enable an individual to differentiate the quality and value of research reports……by accurately identifying their
strengths and weaknesses
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General evaluative criteria…General evaluative criteria…
1. introduction2. method
3. results
4. discussion
5. abstract or summary
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1) introduction…
…hypotheses
…problem…review of literature
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2) method…
…design and procedure
…participants…instruments
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3) results…4) discussion (including conclusions
and recommendations)…
5) abstract or summary…
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Type-specific evaluative criteria…Type-specific evaluative criteria…
1. qualitative research2. descriptive research (including questionnaire, interview, and observation studies)
3. correlational research (including relationship and prediction studies)
4. causal-comparative research
5. experimental research
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Mini-Quiz…Mini-Quiz…
True and false…
…the larger the denominator in a parametric test of significance, the larger the numerator must be to attain significance
True
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True and false…
…computer analyses of data always provide accurate results of the data input into the program
True
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True and false…
…the product of a test of significance is a number
True
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True and false…
…what the test of significant means requires interpretation
True
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True and false…
…virtually any difference can be made significant if the sample is large enough
True
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True and false…
…the higher the level of significance at which the null hypothesis will be rejected, the more powerful the test
True
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True and false…
…the failure to reject the null hypothesis renders a study insignificant
False
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True and false…
…a true test of a hypothesis comes from its ability to explain and predict what is happening
False
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True and false…
…the lack of randomized samples can introduce bias into a study and limit its usefulness
True
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True and false…
…although the researcher is likely to know the significance level of the study and its sample size, the researcher is not likely to know the effect size
True
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True and false…
…smaller sample sizes mean less power
True
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True and false…
…statistical and practical significance are synonymous
False
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True and false…
…a greater mean difference is probably required to reject a null hypothesis
True
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True and false…
…repeating a study with different participants in the same or different settings increases the generalizability of the findings
True
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True and false…
…the most common flaw in a research study is the lack of information provided about validity and reliability
True
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True and false…
…whether the most appropriate design was used in a study, given the problem, involves a degree of subjective judgment
True
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Fill in the blank…
…the process of double-checking, cleaning, and organization of the data as well as evaluating the research conclusion
verification
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Fill in the blank…
…the probability of avoiding a Type II error
power
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Fill in the blank…
…the results of a study are likely to occur by chance a certain percentage of the time
statistical significance
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Fill in the blank…
…the strongest research evidence supporting a research hypothesis
replication
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This module has focused on...This module has focused on...
post-analysis considerations, preparingand evaluating research reports
...the procedures for checking and storing all data in an organized manner and the general guidelines for reporting a study’s findings