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EPISTEMOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND THE MORAL
ENDS OF RESEARCH: WHAT’S IN IT FOR INSTRUCTED SLA RESEARCHERS?
6th Annual BAAL LL&T SIG ConferenceKing’s College – July , 8-9 2010
University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa
LOURDES ORTEGA
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Please cite as:
Ortega, L. (2010). Epistemological diversity and the moral ends of research: What’s in it for instructed SLA researchers? Plenary address delivered at the 6th Annual BAAL LL&T SIG Conference. King’s College, London, July 8-9.
Copyright © Lourdes Ortega, 2010
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In memoriam
Johannes Eckerth
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Thanks to the organizers
Nick Andon Alan Fortune
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1. Locating ourselves…
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Conference theme: Cognitive-interactional and socio-cultural perspectives:
Compatible, complementary, or incommensurable?
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At stake in the formulation of the theme: Issues of
epistemological diversity and its feasibility…
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2. My cards on the table…
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1. Do we have it?
2. Is it a good
thing?
Epistemological diversity in instructed SLA…
Yes, and Yes!
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3. But is it
enough?
Epistemological diversity in instructed SLA…
No: Ethical lens also needed!
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3. Epistemological diversity…
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…YES, IT IS HERE TO STAY
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etic.............................................................emic
general..............................................particular
homogeneous.....................................variable
inherited~birth..........................made~history
Epistemological tensions across social sciencesNativist theories........................Empiricist theories{Biology} ................................................{Sociality}
The Social Turn(Block, 2003)
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The social turn has transformedSLA theories
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Social respecifications:
L2 interaction:Conversation Analysis
L2 grammar:Systemic-FunctionalLinguistics
L2 cognition:Vygotskian SCT
L2 learning:Language socialization
L2 self:Identity theory
Language ‘faculty’:Usage-based emergentism
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This transformation has also transpired into specific
topical areas
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ISLA e.g., focus on form via INTERACTION
Interactionhypothesis
CA for SLAVygotskian
SCTUsage-basedemergentism
Co-oriented trouble in talk
Repair
Contingency of unfolding turns
Learning tracked over time in natural interaction data
Interaction offers linguistic input in learnable “islands”:
most frequent, most prototypical, most communicatively useful constructions
Assistance within ZPD (LREs)
(Self-)regulation continuum
Meta-reflection
Conceptual understanding
Tailored-test learning
Negotiation for meaning (NfM moves)
Noticing
Output modifications
Post-test learning
Individual differences
Gass,Mackey, McDonough
Swain, LapkinStorch
Fortune & Thorpe
Markee,Wagner, Seedhouse
N. Ellis &Ferreira-Junior (20009)
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ISLA e.g., focus on form via NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Conversation AnalysisSeedhouse (2004)
Koshik (2002)
Systemic-FunctionalLinguistics
Mohan & Beckett (2001)
Vygotskian SCTAljaafreh & Lantolf (1994)
Storch & Wigglesworth (2010)
Language socializationFriedman (2009)
Identity theoryFiona Hyland?
Lynn Goldstein?
Usage-based emergentismHartshorn et al. (2010)
Cognitive-interactionismRussell & Spada (2006)
Li (2010)Lyster & Saito (2010)
Ferris (2010)
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…EPISTEMOLOGICAL DIVERSITY IS ALSO A
GOOD THING
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This epistemological multiplicity improves our
theorized understanding of phenomena (validity
advantage)
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Koshik’s designedly incomplete utterances
DIU =Recognizable
action (invitation to self-repair)
Self-repair = Co-orientation to DIU
and contingent next action
Lyster’s prompts
Prompt = Move pushing for self-
correction, triggered by
errorUptake =
Successful self-correction or incorporation
ISLA e.g., NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
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Koshik (2002, p. 287)He died not from injuries, but drowned after he was left there for 13 hours without any aids.
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Lyster (2002, p. 245)Talking about porcupines
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Doughty & Varela (1998)
St: I think that the worm will go under the soil.
T: I think that the worm will go under the soil?
St: [no response]
T: I thought that the worm would go under the soil.
St: I thought that the worm would go under the soil.
Clear co-orientation towards corrective
action
teacher “animating”
words (Goffman,
1981) authored by student (cf.
lack of pronoun
reversal -- I/you!)
e.g.: Is this a recast, and how explicit is this?
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IT FOLLOWS ALSO THAT
I BELIEVE IN COMMENSURABILITY
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Incommensurability
Kuhn (1962), because different paradigms create different worlds, and inhabitants of different worlds
don’t share common ground.
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But others have worked hard at crafting the possibility of
commensurability
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Gage (1989), Kamil (1995), Stanovich (1990)
Greene & Caracelli (1997), Tashakkori &
Creswell (2007)
Ascendancy of mixed-methods research
in education, health, social sciences
Cease-fire pieces after paradigm wars in education and literacy
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Dunn & Lantolf (1998)
Habermasiancommunicative rationality and communicative action (e.g., 1983)
“When two metaphors compete for attention and incessantly screen each other for possible weaknesses, there is a much better chance for producing a critical theory of learning”
(Sfard, 1998, p. 11)
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Pluralism is to be valued on both moral and epistemic grounds: Engagement with, rather than dismissal of, multiple views and voices produces better/more valid knowledge and it also produces more useful/ethically responsible knowledge
Kenneth Howe (2003; House & Howe, 1999)
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…BUT EPISTEMOLOGICAL DIVERSITY IS NOT
ENOUGH
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L2 learning
Language
Social context
Agency Identity
More fully theorized, improved understanding of constructs that are central to social theories of SLA
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But what about the
social value and social
ends of our research? …
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L2 learning
Language
Social context
Agency Identity
What about…
Power………………………..........Social
transformation
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AN ETHICAL LENSIS ALSO NEEDED
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4. Moral Ends of Research…
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(Ortega, 2005)
Instructed SLA researchers must grapple with ethics and values
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“to be truly ethical, educational researchers must be prepared to defend what their research is for”
“social and educational research is (ought to be) framed by self-consciously chosen moral-political ends”
(Howe & Moses, 1999, p. 56, p. 38)
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… For me, issues of educational relevance and social responsibility must be at the foreground of any reconceptualizations of instructed SLA research
“in the ultimate analysis, it is not the methods or the epistemologies that justify the legitimacy and quality of human research, but the moral-political purposes that guide sustained research efforts”
(Ortega, 2005, p. 438)
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But to be able to entertain this position, we must
reject three assumptions (Ortega, 2005)
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Assumed fact-value dichotomy:
theory and knowledge building, the goal of research
practical applications, a posteriori,
independent from theory building
“basic”
“applied”
Weberian “technicis
m”
Reject!
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Assumed neutrality of “facts”:
Knowledge can…
… and must be neutral, objective
“(post)positivism”
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Assumed neutrality of “facts”:
Knowledge can…
… and must be neutral, objective
“(post)positivism”
Reject!
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Assumed “irrationality” of values:
Values are a matter of personal choice…
…they escape rational scrutiny
“emotivism”(MacIntyre, 1984)
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Assumed “irrationality” of values:
Values are a matter of personal choice…
…they escape rational scrutiny
“emotivism”(MacIntyre, 1984)
Reject!
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And instead of technicism, positivism,
and emotivism, we must embrace three new assumptions about
research, knowledge, and values
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Values and ethics… What are they?
“… knowing about ways of acting and interacting with responsibility to others and ways of making knowledge (i.e., people's knowing) of value to the world in which we live”
Scarino (2005, pp. 33-34)
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Values and ethics… What are they?
“… knowing about ways of acting and interacting with responsibility to others and ways of making knowledge (i.e., people's knowing) of value to the world in which we live”
Scarino (2005, pp. 33-34)
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Ethically responsive research?
Research that “makes knowledge (i.e., people's
knowing) of value to the world in which we live”
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5. What’s in it for instructed SLA researchers?
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People’s knowing in the world we live in that can be impacted
by ISLA research:All actors and stake-holders in
educational worldsLearnersTeachers
AdministratorsPolicy makersWider society
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Questions ISLA researchers must ask themselves:
2. How are the ideals of educational relevance
and social responsibility served by adopting
diverse epistemological and ontological perspectives on
additional language learning?
1. What ISLA knowledge can be of value to
whom?
3. Under what conditions does research about
language instruction contribute socially and educationally
valuable knowledge?
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HALF-FULL GLASS…
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I. THE SOCIAL TURN IN SLA HAS MADE ISLA RESEARCHERS
MORE AWARENESS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF
CONTEXTUALIZATION AND EDUCATIONAL RELEVANCE
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Biggest impact of epistemological diversity on ISLA research thus far:
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Labs vs. classrooms
Foster (1998):Ecological validity of lab findings?Need to report individual-level dataGass, Mackey, & Ross-Feldman (2005)
Nicholas et al. (2001):Context leads to differential effects: “recasts appear to provide more useful input to learners in the laboratory setting than in the classroom setting” (p. 749)Li (2010): lab k=14 d=1.09 vs. class k=11 d=0.47
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Questioning generalizabilityas goal for ISLA
Spada (2005, p. 334):
“Almost all L2 classroom research is carried out in intact classrooms and thus random assignment of participants to different treatment groups is not feasible. But even if that were possible, it seems highly unlikely that the results of studies would be directly applicable to other contexts given the considerable diversity that exists across populations of learners, teachers, schools, and communities. Thus, striving for generalizability—at least in terms of its classic formulation by Campbell and Stanley (1966)— may not be a reasonable or appropriate goal for L2 classroom research”
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Gradually including perspectives of those researched
Learner perspectives:Philp (2009): Social-cognitive factors in TBLT, “muddying the waters”Teacher perspectives:Erlam (2008): Successful conditions for bridging the gap between research and teachingAmmar & Spada (2006): Matching teachers’ natural teaching styles to instructional treatments
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Continued worries about the educational relevance of research
Hatch’s (1978) dictum to “apply with caution”
TESOL Quarterly’s published Symposium on Research and Its Pedagogical Implications:
Han (2007): “researchers need be ever mindful that as much as their studies are generalizable, pedagogy is largely local” (p. 392)
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Calls to nevertheless strive for educational relevance of ISLA research
R. Ellis’s (2010) “educational” perspective on the relevance of SLA research
Chapelle’s (2007) reminder that “professional [research-based] knowledge has never been in greater demand” (p. 405)
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Belcher’s (2007, p. 399) three ways to strive for educational relevance in L2 research:
“considering pedagogy early in one’s research plans (long before the implications are written up)”“conceiving of research
problems asnested in a number of research and real world contexts” “contemplating the needs
of an audience that includes those eager to make the most of our field’s partial knowledge on Monday morning”
Make relevant by design
Respect teachers as research audience and users
Contextualize
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II. THE NEW SOCIAL THEORIES HAVE DEFINITELY
STRENGTHENED OUR UNDERSTANDING OF
LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING
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Biggest criticism of social turn: The cognitive is not enough
ISLA research “exaggerates cognitive phenomena and underestimates the institutional, political, and interpersonal constraints that teachers must deal with”
(Clarke, 1994, p. 16)
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Each of the existing social-theoretical lenses has taught us ethically useful insights on ISLA phenomena that none of the existing cognitive lenses could help us unpack…
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Ethically useful insightsVygotskian SCT
Agentivity and consciousness:
L2 learning is not something that happens to people; L2 learning is something people make happen through intentional social interaction and co-construction of reflected-upon knowledge
Mediation, ZPD
languaging (Swain, 2006)concept-based
instructional praxis (Lantolf, 2008)
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Ethically useful insightsConversation Analysis
L2 users are not deficient users:
Doing communication is a social accomplishment that is distributed across interactants and arises locally in the turn-by-turn deployment of co-orientations and witnessable, recognizable actions
Radical emic perspective, co-orientation
Let-it-pass (Firth, 1996)
Suspension of categories “nativeness”, “error”…
No content, no reality, unless co-oriented
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Usage-based emergentismEthically useful insights
Importance of individual & variability:
What’s to be explained, centrally, is each individual’s learning as a complex and adaptive system constantly being shaped and shaping the social environment
Co-adaptation, soft-assembly, unknowableness and interconnectedness of systems
Non-teleological grammar learning: No end, no state, no ladder (Larsen-Freeman, 2005)
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Language socializationEthically useful insights
More realistic and also more complex learning goals: L2 learning is about much more than just learning “language”…
Kyle, acquirer of L2 Indonesian (DuFon, 2006, p. 117):
vocabulary pedas = ‘spicy’, asin = ‘salty’speech acts enak = ‘delicious’, hambar ‘tasteless’
“My eating behavior has changed. Now I eat a lot in the morning, plus my eating etiquette has changed. Things that taste good taste really good. I kind of look at the food differently, with more respect”
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Systemic-FunctionalLinguistics
Ethically useful insights
Learning grammar is about learning to mean, and meanings are social and personal, built on linguistic repertoires
From an ESL teacher’s journal, cited with permission:
Once I had a student who kept saying “I came from Korea.” I tried to correct her grammar by saying “if you are originally from Korea, you should use present tense when you refer to it.”She said “Since I don’t want to go back to Korea and identify myself with American, I’d rather say I came from Korea and wish to be an American one day.”
Not about learning/correcting the grammar rule for –ed past
tense or idiomaticity but about “meaning
to others”
Expanding meaning-making
repertoire: “If you ‘want to
mean this’ and to ‘be read by others,’ you
can use originally”
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Identity theoryEthically useful insights
L2 learning is about power and contested identities“When a language learner interacts with a member of the target language group […] [s/he] is asking to what extent [s/he] will be able to impose reception on [the] interlocutor […] Thus, language learners are not only learning a linguistic system; they are learning a diverse set of sociocultural practices, often best understood in the context of wider relations of power”
Norton & Toohey (2004, p. 115)
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In sum, the epistemological expansion of SLA has infused new key ethical insights into research…
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BUT ALSO HALF-EMPTY GLASS…
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I. ISLA RESEARCH PRACTICES LAG
BEHIND THE NEWEST
THEORETICAL UNDERSTANDINGS
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Yes, there is increasing
recognition that the relevant phenomena
are complex and social, e.g., in
research on negative feedback
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F. Hyland (1998, pp. 277-278)
Error correction is never just about language!
Samorn, Thai graduate student over 30 years old, doing a degree in business:
“At the first time I think that my writing is good because friends always say that it’s good. But my teacher say that I have to have a lot of writing because it’s not so good and at the first time I feel confident of my writing because I think that my grammar- my tense and my plural and verb use with plural, with singular is OK. But when the feedback come out, teacher doesn’t look enough in that grammar. The grammar is not the most important thing for her, so she check in the coherence, in introduction, in something else. And I haven’t got good marks so I think that I am poor in everything of writing. [....] I think that my grammar is good but I didn’t get any comments that ‘oh your grammar is good, but you still have to, you still have to correct about something like this’ But all the comments come that my writing is not so good, so I feel that everything is poor. [....] I think that at least she should admire me some points. [... ] From that time I discouraged a lot and I feel don’t like writing.”
Error correction is
always social and relational
(Goldstein, 2004; Hyland & Hyland, 2006)
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Whether they are always able to act
upon it appropriately, good
teachers have always known this!
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“In giving feedback, we simultaneously offer a representation of ourselves as teachers and as individuals, revealing our beliefs about language, learning, writing, and personal relationships. We can be impersonal, critical, and autocratic, or informed, sympathetic, and helpful, and controlling this representation of self can be crucial to maintaining interaction with students and providing feedback that will be taken seriously”
Hyland & Hyland (2006, p. 207)
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Study of Rose, a French FL teacher, giving feedback and grading her students’ writing :
In the act of judging performance, she is confronted, albeit intuitively or subconsciously, with the responsibility of determining how to use her knowledge of criteria and standards and, simultaneously, how also to consider her students as young, sentient beings, her relationship with them, the consequences of her actions and judgments, and ethical concerns that pertain. She has to seek to find "equilibrium among justice, caring and truthfulness" (Oser, 1994, p. 104) as she judges their work.
Scarino (2005, p. 37)
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Do we translate these insights into
our research practices when
investigating error correction/negative
feedback?
… the bulk of current research continues with
business as usual?!
But…
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Despite all the epistemological
expansion we have witnessed in
negative feedback research…
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Conversation AnalysisSeedhouse (2004)
Koshik (2002)
Systemic-FunctionalLinguistics
Mohan & Beckett (2001)
Vygotskian SCTAljaafreh & Lantolf (1994)
Storch & Wigglesworth (2010)
Language socializationFriedman (2009)
Identity theoryFiona Hyland?
Lynn Goldstein?
Usage-based emergentismHartshorn et al. (2010)
Cognitive-interactionismRussell & Spada (2006)
Li (2010)Lyster & Saito (2010)
Ferris (2010)
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It has not revolutionarized how
we investigate feedback, and
teachers giving feedback…
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“Inconsistency” of teacher corrective behavior (Chaudron, 1988; R. Ellis, 1990; Lee,
2004; Zamel, 1985) = most likely a byproduct of decontextualized analyses? No research on this, still
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In fact, rapidly widening gap in
negative feedback research…?
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“The studies of written CF designed by SLA researchers examine whether written CF facilitates long-term acquisition of particular linguistic features, and, if so, how. […] In contrast, L2 writing researchers start with the question of whether written CF helps student writers to improve the overall effectiveness of their texts and to develop as more successful writers”
Ferris (2010, p. 188)
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“… four recent studies (Bitchener, 2008; Bitchener and Knoch, 2008; Ellis et al., 2008; Sheen, 2007) … apparently contradict Truscott’s position on the basis of empirical evidence, but unfortunately bear little relation to current contextualized writing pedagogy”
Bruton (2009, p. 601)
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Long-term acquisition of linguistic forms, ties with experimental research
Supporting good writers and effective texts, pedagogically grounded research
“basic”
“applied”
Tension felt, rooted in Weberian
“technicism”?
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II. THE POPULATIONS THAT CAN BENEFIT FROM
ISLA RESEARCH CONTINUE TO BE
SEVERELY RESTRICTED
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Although, slowly, we are beginning to research new learner populations
UG SLA’s new interest in heritage learners: Montrul (2009), Montrul & Bowles (2008)
Educational SLA’s new interest in learners with interrupted schooling and/or limited alphabetic print: Bigelow (2010), Tarone et al. (2009)
Cognitive-interactionist SLA’s new interest in young learners: Philp, Oliver, Mackey (2008)
2010 BAAL LL&T SIG Conference: David Block on social class and L2 learning; Tom Morton on working-class secondary school CLIL students; Ros Mitchell on 5- and 7-year-olds learning French
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But by and large, the populations researched (and served by) ISLA researchers
are “pastoral” (Ortega, 2005)
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involving:Middle-classHighly literateCollege-based or college-boundWith limited experience of linguicism or other forms of oppressionOften, raised with one language onlyPursuing elective bilingualism
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Very large learner populations are ignored (e.g., 0.5 million international students in US universities vs. 4.5 million L2 English users in k-12 public schools)
If we don’t investigate them, we don’t serve them
When we serve them and research them, our methods and research are challenged and changed for the better (Bigelow & Tarone, 2004)
Representativeness of the knowledge available about L2 learning and teaching?
Quality/completeness of knowledge?
Serious consequences:
Ethics
Validity
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III. TEACHER EFFICACY BLIND
SPOTS ARE YET TO BE FULLY
ADDRESSED EMPIRICALLY BY
ISLA
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Teacher efficacy:
“beliefs about the power… to produce a positive effect on students” -- informed by experiences, by professional knowledge, and by (commonsensical) macro-societal beliefs, and also influenced by students, institutional context, and teacher sense of self
Ball & Lardner (1997, p. 13, 18)
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Teacher efficacy blind spots, e.g.
aptitude
nativenessag
e
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Non-native speaking teacher, cited with permission: While I am not a native Spanish speaker, I have a fairly decent authentic Spanish accent; however, I have heard Spanish teachers who speak with thick American, especially Southern accents. I am not questioning their abilities as a teacher, but I would be curious to know if students who have native Spanish speakers (or native English speakers for ESL) teachers acquire a native-like accent. My question is: “Are the students I teach at a disadvantage for obtaining a native-like accent because their teacher is not a native?” “Will they speak like I speak?”
e.g., nativeness
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What research can be designed to produce relevant findings that help teachers reframe harmful ideologies?
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Age: Muñoz (2006) In EFL contexts, younger is NOT better
Good examples of ethically useful research in these areas
Aptitude: Skehan (2002), Robinson (2002) aptitude is multidimensional, treatable construct
Nativeness: Seidlhofer (2004), Jenkins (2005) ELF is a systematic variety amenable to study
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IV. SOCIAL APPROACHES DO NOT INHERENTLY
ENHANCE THE SOCIAL VALUE OF
RESEARCH
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Acquisitionof
knowledge/skills
Participationin
communities/processes
Formal linguistic SLA
Skills acquisition theory
Functional-linguistic SLA
Cognitive interactionism
Identity theoryLg socializationCA-for-SLAVygotskian SLASystemic-Functional Ling.
Usage-based emergentism
Sfard (1998)Pavlenko & Lantolf
(2000)
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Cognitive epistemolog
ies
Social epistemolo
giesReject!
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Similar epistemologies do not always result in similar ethics
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Gould(rev. ed. 1996)
Herrstein &Murray (1994)
Gould (1981)
Same epistemologies & methodologies, different moral ends:
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In fact, within similar epistemologies, there may be more “critical” or
transformation-oriented research and more “a-critical” research streams
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“… within an overarching interpretivist framework… Postmodernists and transformationists differ about the possibility of a general moral-political grounding for social research, the postmodernists being highly suspicious, even dismissive, of this idea. As such, the postmodernists eschew general moral-political commitments and thus carry over that feature of the fact/value dogma from the old divide [within a positivist framework]”
Howe (2007, p. 577)
In education:
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In SLA, e.g., critically oriented LS theory
“Criticalist approaches [to Language Socialization, as opposed to a-critical Language Socialization research] in SLA examine language learning through postcolonial and postmodern theoretical lenses where issues of power, privilege, and sociopolitical history are central rather than incidental to the analysis, and where the research is positioned to serve subaltern communities in crisis as well as to advance scholarly discourse”
(Bronson & Watson-Gegeo, 2008, p. 46)
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So, there is no inherent or natural ethical value in a given epistemology or
methodology.
Ethical choices in research emerge out of consciousness, agency, and
deliberative rationality.
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Regardless of epistemological predilection and methodological
approach, all value choices embedded in any given piece of SLA
research must be articulated and defended anew.
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6. In conclusion
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Assumptions:
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Instructed SLA research should be ethically responsive
research, that is, research that makes “knowledge (i.e.,
people's knowing) of value to the world in which we live”
Position:
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“amplifying a ‘critical moment’ in SLA […] will require researchers to assess what they have left out as well as what they have included in their data sets and procedures. They must grapple with questions of accountability and responsibility to the communities they are studying as well as to their own communities-of-practice when they assess the explanatory power and impact of their final interpretations”
Bronson & Watson-Gegeo (2008, p. 49)
Incumbent upon all ISLA researchers:
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How well are we, instructed SLA
researchers, faring in terms of producing knowledge that is
socially and educationally
valuable?
And are we capable of disciplinary
dialogue about what would be “of value” to the world we live
in?
Pending questions:
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Thank [email protected]
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Please cite as:
Ortega, L. (2010). Epistemological diversity and the moral ends of research: What’s in it for instructed SLA researchers? Plenary address delivered at the 6th Annual BAAL LL&T SIG Conference. King’s College, London, July 8-9.
Copyright © Lourdes Ortega, 2010