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M. Er in Brett , Mercer University
Jake Carpenter, Independent WASH Consultant
Dr. Michael F. MacCar thy, Mercer University
Dr. Laura W. Lackey, Mercer University
2015 OU Internat ional WaTER Conference
Presented September 22, 2015
INVESTIGATING THE POTENTIAL OF
FIELD-BASED WATER QUALITY
TESTING TO ASSESS
GROUNDWATER AGGRESSIVITY AND
CORROSION POTENTIAL OF
HANDPUMP BOREHOLES IN
NORTHERN UGANDA
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Background
Research Goals
Materials and Methods
Field Results & Data Analysis
Conclusions and
Recommendations
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A MAJORITY OF BOREHOLES
IN UGANDA ARE VARIATIONS
OF THE INDIA MARK II
HANDPUMP
U-Series Handpumps
Pump
Regime Specifications
U2* 32mm NB
U3* Open Top Cylinder (OTC),
65mm NB
U3M OTC & corrosion resistant, 32m
depth max
* Corrosion resistant if stainless steel riser
pipes and pump rods used
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To investigate efficacy of pH test strips to predict
groundwater pH and aggressiveness,
To compare the reliability and validity of 3 pH test
strips to a Hanna pH probe,
To determine the origin of iron measured at
boreholes in Northern Uganda, and
To provide recommendations to field workers and
the district water authority concerning parameters
to consider during borehole construction or
rehabilitation.
RESEARCH GOALS
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MATERIALS AND
METHODS
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Intended Use Cost Range (pH)
Test Time
Macherey Nagel (MN) pH-Fix test strips –REF 921 10
Single-use, rapid test for “dangerous, poisonous, or aggressive liquids”
~$14 for 100 strips
0-14 10 sec/strip
(WaterWorks™) Extended Range pH Check Test Strips-481104
Single-use, broad application of water quality testing
~$10 for 50 strips
2-12 30 sec/strip
Youth Waters pH Test Strips
Single-use, body pH for saliva and urine
~$10 for 160 strips
4.5-9
Hanna Instrument- HI 9813-5 probe
Agricultural application, accuracy @ 20°C ±0.1pH
$175-200+ 0.0-14.0
THREE PH TEST STRIPS AND A HANNA
PROBE WERE USED IN THE PH STUDY
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IRON CONCENTRATION WAS MEASURED AT
EACH BOREHOLE USING THE SENSAFE™
IRON CHECK TEST KIT
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RWSN pump test: 10 pumps or less for a 30 minute
wait time ( skat-RWSN, 2008, p.26)
The pump was fully primed, left for two minutes,
and then pumped until water flowed.
Ideal number of pumps: 1
A PUMP PERFORMANCE TEST WAS
CONDUCTED AT 12 OF 15 BOREHOLES TO
TEST FOR LEAKING
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Parameters recorded
Time
Volume pumped
pH
Conductivity
TDS
Iron Concentration
WATERAID PUMP TESTING WAS
CONDUCTED AT BOREHOLES 14 & 16
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3 Paired t -Tests were conducted to compare each pH strip to
the Hanna probe
Conducted at α=0.05
MN compared to Hanna probe
Extended Range compared to Hanna probe
Youth Waters compared to Hanna probe
Bland-Altman Dif ference Method conducted
First Plot
Compares pH strip to Hanna probe
Line of equality
Second Plot
(Probe-Test Strip) vs. Average of the two
Mean difference ±2 standard deviations
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Hanna Probe & Youth Waters, Extended
Range, & MN pH strips, respectively
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FIELD RESULTS & DATA
ANALYSIS
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Variables n Mean
Diff. St.Dev.
St.
Error tn-1
95% CI for
Mean Diff.
P-
value
Probe-MN 15 -0.026 0.26 0.066 2.145 (-0.17, 0.12) 0.71
Probe-ERa 15 0.18 0.32 0.083 2.145 (-0.0024, 0.35) 0.053
Probe-YWb 15 0.25 0.17 0.044 2.145 (0.16, 0.35) 0.00
PAIRED T-TEST RESULTS
There was no significant dif ference in MN and Hanna probe pH
measurements or in Extended Range and Hanna probe pH
measurements.
There was a significant dif ference in Youth Waters and Hanna
probe pH measurements.
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BLAND-ALTMAN MN VS. HANNA PROBE
Mean dif ference= -0.026
SD= 0.26
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BLAND-ALTMAN EXTENDED RANGE VS.
HANNA PROBE
Mean dif ference= 0.18
SD= 0.32
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THERE IS A NEGATIVE LINEAR
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PH & # OF JERRY
CANS PUMPED
pH of water that has been in the borehole for some time is higher than in the aquifer.
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A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IRON CONC.
AND # OF JERRY CANS PUMPED CAN BE
DEDUCTED
Suggests iron levels in boreholes tested were at least partially
due to corrosion
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INITIAL IRON
CONCENTRATION
GEOGRAPHICALLY
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Borehole No. No. of Pumps 1 -- 2 -- 3 3 4 -- 5 2 6 1 7 1 8 5 9 13
10 30 11 64 12 7 13 1 14 1 15 -- 16 1
Average: 11 Standard Dev: 18
% Passed: 9/12= 75%
PUMP PERFORMANCE TEST RESULTS
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BOREHOLE 14- PUMP TEST
Iron concentration stabilized at 1 mg/L
pH stabilized around 6.15
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BOREHOLE 16- PUMP TESTING
[Fe]: Test 1- ended at 2.33 mg/L; Test 2 - 2 mg/L
pH stabilized at 6.2
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Iron concentrations decrease with volume pumped
Corrosion of pump components contribute the bulk of
the iron observed in borehole water.
pH decreases with volume pumped
OBSERVATIONS FROM WATERAID PUMP TESTS
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The cathodic reduction in the scale maintains the anodic oxidation of the iron metal.
Overall Reaction: Fe(s) + 2FeOOH(s) + 2H+ ↔ 3Fe2+ + 4OH -
THE KUCH MECHANISM IS A PATHWAY FOR
CORROSION TO CONTINUE DURING
STAGNATION
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CONCLUSIONS &
RECOMMENDATIONS
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Results from Pump Tests at boreholes 14 and 16 suggest that
much of the iron observed in borehole water produced by
handpumps is from corrosion.
The MN and Extended Range test strips are statistically
acceptable options for measuring pH in boreholes in Northern
Uganda.
Iron concentration and pH of groundwater should be
considered when determining how a borehole should be
rehabilitated.
CONCLUSIONS
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The following should be noted:
There is a correlation between aggressive groundwater and GI
pipe and U2 pump corrosion.
Boreholes will continue to be abandoned unless methods are
implemented to reduce iron concentration levels.
pH is a good indicator of groundwater aggressiveness and the
potential for corrosion.
pH test strips are a low -cost method for reliably measuring
pH.
pH of the groundwater should be measured before deciding on
handpump type and materials to use in the borehole.
Pump performance test results and pH measurements should
be used to determine the source of iron and the type of
rehabilitation needed for existing wells.
RECOMMENDATIONS TO FIELD WORKERS
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Repeat the pH strip study using pH test strips available in Northern Uganda.
Measure dissolved oxygen during pump testing to further investigate the Kuch Mechanism.
Measure ammonium concentration to determine if IRB are contributing to iron concentrations in the borehole.
Measure additional indices shown to predict corrosion: alkalinity , hardness, temperature, TDS, electroconductivity, calcium, chloride, and sulfate concentrations .
Further investigate the composition of the GI pipes available in the Gulu area.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK
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Dr. Lackey
Dr. Butler
Dr. MacCarthy
Jake Carpenter
Candace Girod
Professor
Harshbarger
THANK YOU!
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QUESTIONS? C O N TAC T E R I N B R E T T:
M I T Z I . E . B R E T T @ L I V E . M E R C E R . E D U
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REFERENCES
Installation and Maintenance Manual for the India Mark III
Handpump, skat-RWSN, 2008, p.26, http://www.rural-water-
supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/INDIA -MARK-
III_Installation-Manual_Ed-2008.pdf.