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The
short-term
memory Exploring the link between the age of people and the functioning of their
short-term memory
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The short-term memory
Exploring the link between the age of people and the functioning of theirshort-term memory
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The short-term memory
Anne Bosman
Kelly Guo
Supervisor: G.J Muhlenbaumer (Biology)
Date of submission: December, 12, 2013
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Preface
We would like to thank G.J Mulhenbaumer, our supervisor, who has given us the proper instructions
and aid to help us finish this paper successfully. Mrs de Goey, who has supported us and was of
assistance whenever she could be. Jasper Kousen, thank you for helping us out with any technicaldifficulties. And last but not least, we are incredibly thankful for everyone who has taken part in our
research, especially Helen de Vries and her father Hugo de Vries.
Thank you.
Anne Bosman & Kelly Guo
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Index
Introduction p. 6
TheoryAnatomy of the brain (short-term memory) p. 7
What is the short-term memory p. 8 - 9
Link between IQ and short-term memory p. 10
Aging influencing short-term memory p. 11
Conditions and diseases influencing short-term memory p. 12 - 13
External factors influencing short-term memory p. 14 - 15
Relation of vision and sound with the short-term memory p. 16 - 17
List of equipment and MethodList of equipment p. 18 - 19
Method p. 20
Results
Group 1: children between the age of 11-13 p. 21
Group 2: teenagers between the age of 16-18 p. 22
Group 3: young adults between the age of 20-30 p. 23
Group 4: adults between the age of 37-60 p. 24
Group 5: elderly aged 65 or older p. 25Results groups combined p. 26 - 27
Average scores per group p. 28
Conclusion p. 29 - 30
Discussion p. 31
Evaluation p. 32
Summary p. 33
Source list p. 34 – 35
Personal log p. 36 - 39
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6
Introduction
Imagine you get a call and the person on the phone asks you to remember a telephone number.
While you’re looking for pen and paper you’re trying to memorize the phone number in different
ways. But as soon as you have written down the number, it is erased from your memory. This is aclassic example of the usage of the short-term memory. However the short-term memory is not only
used for remembering numbers, take for example memorizing your French vocabulary which you will
most likely forget once you have been examined.
After plentiful brainstorming, creating diverse mind maps and our dedicated interest in the subject
Biology, we have chosen the short-term memory as the topic of our final paper. We decided on this
topic as it became clear that we could link the short-term memory to a large and interesting
practicum. In this practical work we created five different age groups.
Group 1: children between the age of 11-13 Group 2: teenagers between the age of 16-18
Group 3: young adults between the age of 20-30
Group 4: adults between the age of 37-60
Group 5: elderly aged 65 or older
These groups are going to be exposed to either a text or an audio clip. Both fragments contain the
same narrative which enables both audiences to memorize the same information given through the
text or audio clip. Afterwards the audience has to answer several question from which it becomes
clear how much information is stored by the short-term memory. Using the experimental data
resulted from this practical work and the sub questions: (1) what is the relationship between seeing
information and the short-term memory in different age groups and (2) what is the relationship
between hearing information and the short-term memory in different age groups, this final paper
intends to answer the frequently asked question: what is the link between the age of people and the
functioning of their short-term memory?
Our hypothesizes on the sub questions are: (1) when people are confronted with visual information,
they are more capable of storing this in their short-term memory however, (2) when people are
confronted with auditory information, they are not able to store as much of the information in their
short-term memory. These two hypothesizes combined will bring about the hypothesis to our main
question, which is: when people get older the functioning of their short-term memory will impair .
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Anatomy of the brain (location short-term memory)
Figure 1 - The four lobes of the cerebral cortex. The brains can be divided into three parts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brainstem (see
figure 1).[1]
The cerebrum is covered by a thick layer of neural tissue that is called the cerebral cortex.
The cerebral cortex plays a key role in memory. It can be divided by grooves into several parts called
the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe. Within the temporal lobe the limbic
system, which is the region of the brain in which subcortical structures meet the cerebral cortex, is
located (see figure 2).[2]
Together with the Etorhinal cortex, which is one of these subcortical
structures forming the main interface between the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex, the
hippocampus forms and stores a large part of the memory.[3]
Figure 2 – The limbic system and the hippocampus.
The memory can be divided into the long-term memory, the sensory memory and the short-term
memory. The short-term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in
an active, readily available state for a short period of time.[4]
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What is the short-term memory?
The short-term memory itself is a component of a larger and more complex framework of processes
and structures called the working memory. Most psychologists consider short-term memory to be
important in much cognition, playing a key role in the working memory, a system that holds on theinformation needed for comprehension and problem solving.
[2] The short term-memory is related to
two other stores, one being the sensory memory and the other which is defined as the long-term
memory (figure 3). We can compare the short-term memory store to the post-it note of the brain on
which pointers or keywords are scribbled down, such as words or numbers, which the brain is able to
assemble into a larger piece of information.
Figure 3 - In 1968 Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed a model of memory called The Multi Store Memory which
consist of three seperate key components: the sensory memory the short-term memory (STM) and the long-
term memory (LTM).[1]
But before any information enters the short-term memory, environmental input is taken in and
communicated by various sensory neurons which are associated with different senses. This
information enters three different levels of memory, starting with our sensory memory.[2]
The
sensory memory is the shortest-term memory and decays very quickly. It has the ability to hold
information very temporarily, for about 200 to 500 milliseconds. Processing this information to
reach our short-term memory begins with attention, which will selectively allow the brain to focus on
specific parts of the input. 99% of the input is lost by this process.[3]
Once the information is transmitted and enters the short-term memory, the hippocampus is
activated. This enables the associative information to be stored in an immediately-available andactive state. The short-term memory has a limited duration of 20 to 30 seconds, according to the
Peterson and Peterson procedure (1959)[4]
and in rare cases up to a minute. After this period of time
the information that has entered the short-term memory decays or is displaced by new information
when it is no longer attended to or actively rehearsed. The capacity of the short-term memory is
limited as well as, according to the famous studies of Miller (1956) and Jacobs (1887)[5]
, the short-
term memory is able to hold seven, plus or minus two, separate digits or units at the same time.
However, when the information stored in the short-term memory is rehearsed, the role of
hippocampus for temporary memories slowly disappears, and more permanent memories gradually
develops resulting the information to pass on to the long-term memory store. [6] The hippocampus
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receives information from a great number of brain regions, which are mostly located in the
neocortex, a tissue that works as a blanket in the brain and surrounds other brain structures.[7]
The
hippocampus ties information from these different brain regions together in order to form new
permanent memories. In this process cells known as CA1 pyramidal cells, because of their triangular
shape, help the hippocampus in communication with the other brain areas.[8]
But although rehearsal
of the information influences the transfer of this to the long-term memory, other factors such as the
depth of processing, motivation and arousal also play an important role.[9]
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The link between IQ and short-term memory
Psychologist Raymond Cattle proposed the concept fluid intelligence ( abbreviated Gf), or also known
as fluid reasoning. Gf is the capacity of a person to solve difficulties in strikingly new situations, which
are independent on knowledge that is acquired in the past.[1]
It should definitely not be confusedwith crystallized intelligence which, contrary to fluid intelligence, relies on past experiences and
formerly obtained data. Fluid intelligence is necessary for abstract problem solving such as the
solving of mathematical and scientific equations and recognizing patterns. There are several
measures which allows us to asses fluid intelligence. Commonly known is the Cattell Culture Fair IQ
test and the Raven Progressive Matrices (RPM)[1]
. The higher the scores of a person passing the test,
the more capacity for logical thinking the person possesses.
The fact that there is a strong link between the short-term memory capacity and fluid intelligence is
proven in by several studies in the recent years, such as Conway, Cowan, Bunting, Therriault, &
Minkoff, 2002; Ackerman, Beier, & Boyle, 2005; Unsworth, Redick,Heitz, Broadway, & Engle, 2009.[2]
In particular, these studies have shown that the greater the number of remembered units stored in
the short-term memory, the greater the fluid intelligence, which is measured in IQ tests. This makes
the capacity of the short-term memory a reliable predictive of the IQ of a person and the other way
around. In short: people with a higher IQ score, are able to store more units in their short-term
memory.
However, study researchers at the University of Oregon[3]
found that although the greater amount of
items stored in short memory is linked the IQ of a person, the clarity in which these items are
remembered has no relationship with the height of the IQ of a person. The researchers examined the
ability of the participants to detect minor changes in the items they had to remember. Using this
method they were able to find out how detailed these memories were. Afterwards, this aspects of
the short-term memory were compared to the IQ scores of the participants. It appeared that these
two factors have no correlation.
So does a higher IQ mean a better memory? If with better it is meant quantity, then yes, people with
a higher IQ are indeed able to store more things at the same time. However if we look at the quality
of the items that are maintained in short-term memory, the height of the IQ of a person does not
guarantee about how good these memories are.[4]
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Aging influencing short term memory
Loss of attention or faulty planning can happen to us without even noticing. However, errors of our
memory we notice immediately. Misplacing keys, forgetting phone numbers or asking yourself where
you put your mobile phone, are all recognizable occurrences of everyday forgetfulness. When webecome older these errors even increase, and therefore they are often a common complaint
amongst the elderly. Despite this, we have always taken forgetfulness for granted and that is exactly
the problem which causes aging to influence the functioning of the short-term memory.
Aging usually does not affect the long-term memory, but the functioning of the short-term memory
is often reduced. To store and reproduce information, the brains needs to activate a complex chain
of electrical and chemical reactions in which nerve cells are involved.[1]
As you get older, these nerve
cells gradually get older as well. This causes them to work less effective. Nonetheless, the brain is
capable of producing new nerve cells at any age, which means that elderly people are not lost in
terms of the impairment of their memory, because short term memory loss is not inescapable!However, your memory is like muscle strength, you have to use it or lose it.
[2]
Like the practices you follow to keep yourself healthy, there are also several practices that keep your
brain healthy and so prevent the process of short-memory loss.[3]
These are a few of them:
Eat healthy. Eating an adequate amount of fruits and vegetables and food rich in omega-3 fats like
tuna are particularly good for your brain and memory. Eating too many saturated fats however,
stimulates the risk of a stroke which eventually leads to the development of memory loss.
Stay cool. Stress or better to say cortisol, the stress hormone, causes you to have trouble
concentrating and learning. So less stress decreases the risk of the impairment of your short-term
memory.
Exercise every day. Brain growth and so the development of nerve cells is stimulated by regular
exercising. Additionally, exercising reduces stress and depression which are two of the main causes
that damage the functioning of your short-term memory.
Keep socializing. Social interactions helps to reduce stress and depression as well. Besides this, social
interaction often requires activities that challenges the memory and therefore social contact with for
example friends and family helps to keep the brains being active and prevent mental decline.
So, the loss of nerve cells in the brain come about with the process of aging. But unlike most
frustrated elderly think, short-term memory loss is not inevitable and they could definitely do
something about it!
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Conditions and diseases influencing short-term memory
Short-term memory loss occurs when a person loses the ability to remember certain events and
information which he or she would have easily remembered before. There are several conditions and
diseases that influence short-term memory loss. To start off with Alzheimer’s disease, a form ofdementia. Alzheimer's disease is a common disorder found in adults, in which the nerve cells in the
cerebral cortex, used to store information, are damaged. This leads to the impairment of imprinting.
Imprinting is the process of transferring information from the short-term memory to the long-term
memory. If this is not done the information is lost and this is exactly what happens with someone
who has Alzheimer. The imprinting of a person suffering from Alzheimer is disturbed and therefore
that person does not remember what he or she experienced half a minute ago. For example, if such
a person is laughing he or she does not know that they were crying five minutes earlier.[1]
figure 4 – Short term memory binding deficits in Alzheimer's disease.
Aphasia is another condition affecting the working of the
short-term memory and also occurs in mainly adults.
Aphasias is a disease which disturbs the formulation of
language. A blood vessel disorder called cerebral
hemorrhage or cerebral infarction is often seen as the cause
of this. However a trauma or brain tumor can also be the
trigger. Our brains need oxygen and glucose in order to
function and when a cerebral infarction or any of the other
causes, disturb the glucose or oxygen circulation in our
brains, brain cells die. When this happens in the cerebral
cortex, the short-term memory is malfunctioned and so the
ability of absorbing new information. This impairment
interferes with the ability to interact socially, using
language, and perform one's work.[2]
Figure 5 – The regions in the human brain that are involved in two different networks: one for
language and one for learning and remembering new information (or what we call memory).
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Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that occurs most likely in young adults, characterized by several
psychosis such as hallucination, paranoid and bizarre delusions. People with schizophrenia have at
least one psychosis, but often they have more. During a psychosis, the contact between the outside
world (reality) and the inner world (thoughts and perceptions) is disrupted. For example, someonewith schizophrenia hears voices or believes that he or she is haunted.
[3]
Environmental factors such as stress, traumatic experiences and exclusion, compared with genetic
predisposition of the disease, are the main causes of cognitive deficits that we call schizophrenia.
These cognitive deficits leads to inability of a sufferer to connect an temporarily event with its source
into a complete and whole memory. In this way the sufferer gets bizarre delusions and the
functioning of the short-term memory is reduced.[4]
Figure 6 – The ability of the short-memory to encode information in percentage.
There are 29 conditions associated with forgetfulness, memory problems and recent (short-term)
memory loss, although these three are the most common ones.
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External factors influencing short-term memory
Apart from diseases there are several external factors that can impair the short-term memory. First
of all, alcohol and drugs, as with the excessive use of any other toxins, can cause the short-term
memory to shut down. These drugs primarily disrupts the ability store information from the short-term memory store into the long-term memory.
[1] In other words, alcohol and drugs work as a
blockade in forming new long-term memories. This inability is caused by the disruption of activity in
the hippocampus and more specifically, the impairment of the CA1 pyramid cells.[2]
Figure 7 shows
that when injected with alcohol, the cell was essentially shut off which lasted up until 45 to 60
minutes after injection. Removing or damaging the CA1 cells enable the hippocampus to
communicate with other brain areas and prevents the transportation of information.
Figure 7 – The activity of an individual CA1 pyramidal cell, in a rat, before alcohol consumption (baseline), 45 to
60 minutes after alcohol administration, and 7 hours after alcohol injections. Each frame in the figure shows the
activity rate and location of the cell. White pixels are pixels in which the cell has a low activity, and darker colors
represent higher activity.[2]
This malfunctioning of the cells is also the cause for blackouts or alcohol-induced amnesia that a
person might experience when intoxicated.
But although alcohol and drugs primarily interferes with the ability to form new long-term memories,
they leave the previously established memories (long-term) intact as well as the ability to keep new
information active in memory for brief periods. That is why a person consuming a large amount ofalcohol, may not know what events occurred the night before, but was at that very moment
completely aware of the situation. The magnitude of damages to the memory naturally depends on
the amount of drug that is consumed and the sensitivity of a person towards it.[1]
Another factor that has an impact on short-term memory is sleep deprivation. Sleep is crucial for our
brains’ ability to function properly. Neuroscientists at the University of California, Berkeley,[3]
discovered that the slow brain waves, which are tiny pulses of the electrical activity that are
produced when the neurons communicate with each other and which are slow during our sleep,
have a key role in transferring memories from the short-term store to the long-term one.[4]
These
brain waves are generated during the deep sleep, however when our quality and quantity of thistype of sleep deteriorates or is disturbed, our brain is unable to save our memories at night.
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Next to the transfer of short-term memories to long term memories, sleep deprivation also causes
the brain capacity of the short-term memory to decline. Researchers at the Duke University-National
University of Singapore Graduate Medical School at the SingHealth Cognitive Neuroscience
Laboratory[5]
have found that people who are sleep deprived can only take in a small range of items
at the same time, much smaller than the average range of people who are not sleep deprived. The
capacity of the short-term memory drops due to a reduced attention span. Because a person lacks
sleep, he or she is not able to gather, let alone store large amounts of information.
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The relation of vision and sound with the short-term memory
The short-term memory can be divided into phonological short-term memory and the visual short-
term memory.
The verbal or phonological short-term memory, also known as the phonological store, is the area of
the short-term memory that deals with speech-based or spoken material.[1]
This region of the brain is
used when we try to remember information by reciting it silently to ourselves, but also when we
hold several words in our mind that we are preparing to say.
After being exposed to an audio fragment, this information first enters the echoic memory, which
can be defined as an auditory version of sensory memory. The echoic memory acts as a brief mental
echo, hence the name, that continues to be played after the original auditory stimuli has been
removed.[1]
It is this echoic memory that allows us to recite the last couple words of a sentence even
though we are not actively listening. As it is a type of sensory memory, the echoic memories are very
temporal and can be stored for approximately 300 milliseconds. However, the echoic memories can
be expanded if the information is repeated in the phonological loop.[1]
Information can access the storage capacity of the phonological short-term memory in a direct way
as perceived spoken language has direct access to the phonological loop. This loop can be divided
into two parts: the phonological store and the articulatory control process[2]
(see figure 8). The
phonological store can be compared with inner ear which actually holds the speech-based
information which is presented to a person. The articulatory control process can be compared with
an inner voice which circulates the information like a tape loop making sure the information is
maintained in the store.[3]
Compared to visual and sensory memory, the phonological store has a greater duration. The
information that we hear lasts for 2 to 3 seconds while our visual information can last relatively
shorter, namely only for 250 miliseconds, according to the study by Baddeley, Thomson, & Buchanan
(1975).[4]
Despite this ability to store information for a longer period of time, the phonological store is
subject to rapid decay. However, since the articulatory system is able to revive information that
begins to decay, we can, as long as we keep on rehearsing the information, retain the information in
our the short-term memory, although somewhat effortfully. The capacity of the phonological store
depends on two key features of the presented material: the capacity is lower for similar sounding
words, called the phonological similarity effect and the when the words take longer to articulate,
called the word-length effect.[5]
Figure 8 – The phonological loop consisting of the articulatory control process and the phonological. [2]
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Visual short-term memory (VSTM) has the ability to
temporarily recall visual represented information
such as shapes and colours. Compared to the sensory
memory, visual short-term memory representations
are durable, longer lasting and more abstract. Images
of the visual world are created in the retina. When
light strikes the retina it initiates a series of chemical
and electrical events which trigger nerve impulses.[6]
In the lateral geniculate body, which is part of the
hypothalamus in the brains, these nerve impulses are
transmitted to a subsequent neuron. In this neuron
the visual information is further organized and the
images received from both eyes are combined. From
this neuron the nerve impulses reach the primary
visual cortex, at the back of the skull, where theperson becomes aware of the nerve impulses. This is
surrounded by the associated visual cortex which
makes it possible to recognize patterns. The visual
cortex transmits information to two primary
pathways, called the dorsal stream and the ventral
stream.[7]
Via the ventral system the nerve impulses
reach the temporal lobes where the database of
shapes, figures, familiar faces etc. is located, and so
the short-term memory.
Figure 9 – How light striking the retina reaches the brain.
The figures and shapes can be produced by just eye blinks, eye movements or visual interruptions
but only a certain amount of information can be maintained by the VSTM. Several studies estimated
around 3 or 4 items could be recalled by the VTSM.[8]
However the capacity of the VTSM is not
constant because the greater the information item or the more objects someone is exposed to, the
less objects are remembered. Compared to the short-term memory as a whole, the amount of
information maintained by the VSTM is very little.[9]
.
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List of equipment and Method
List of equipment
5 Groups of 40 people (20 participants audio, and 20 different readers)
- Group 1: children between the age of 11-13
- Group 2: teenagers between the age of 16-18
- Group 3: young adults between the age of 20-30
- Group 4: adults between the age of 37-60
- Group 5: elderly aged 65 or older
20 Reusable text fragments (see figure 9)
Audio fragment (same content as text fragment)
Questionnaire (see figure 8)
Answers to the questionnaire (see figure 10)
Timer
20 Pens
Figure 10 – Questionnaire.
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Figure 11 – Text fragment.
Figure 12 – Answers to questionnaire.
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Method
step 1 (preparations - test reading)
-make sure the participants (+/- 20 people) are situated in a silent environment with no distractions
-inform the participants about the following experiment without telling the participants they have to
remember the non-existing words.
-hand out the text fragment, a pen and the questionnaire to each participant
-make sure it’s the text and questionnaire are upside down so they cannot start reading before the
actual test starts
step 2 (test)
-set the timer for 1 minute and 30 seconds and let the participants read the text fragment
-after 1 minute and 30 seconds stop the participants from reading
-instruct the participants to turn the paper so the text fragment cannot been seen anymore
Step 3 (afterwards)
-allow the participant to turn the questionnaire
-set the timer for 3 minutes and let the participants fill in the questionnaire
Step 4 (repeat)
-repeat step 1,2 and 3 with the four other groups
step 5 (preparation - test audio)
-make sure the participants (+/- 20 people) are situated in a silent environment with no distractions
-inform the participants about the following experiment without telling the participants they have to
remember the non-existing words.-hand out a pen and the questionnaire to each participant
-make sure the questionnaire is upside down so they cannot start reading before the actual test
starts
Step 6 (test)
-let the participants listen to the audio fragment (duration 1 minute and 30 seconds)
Step 7 (afterwards)
-allow the participant to turn the questionnaire
-set the timer for 3 minutes and let the participants fill in the questionnaire
Step 8 (repeat)
-repeat step 1,2 and 3 with the four other groups
Step 9 (checking results)
-check the questionnaires for correct answers
-put the obtained data into a table and a graph
-compare the results from the audio test and reading test, both between and within the different age
groups
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0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
F r e q u e n c y
Answers correct
Age group 11-13
Text
Audio
Results
Group 1: children between the age of 11-13
TEXT
AUDIO
Figure 13 - The total number of words that a participant has filled in correctly (total correct) and how often this
has occurred within the age group (frequency). The two tables show the results of the test carried out using the
text fragment (blue) and the audio fragment (orange).
Figure 14 – Graph compares the total number of words that a participant has filled in correctly (answers
correct) and how often this has occurred within the age group 11-13 (frequency) using the text fragment (blue)
and the audio fragment (orange).
Total
correct
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
frequency 2 2 3 2 4 5 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Totalcorrect 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
frequency 4 5 4 4 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
F r e q u e n c y
Answers correct
Age group 16-18
Text
Audio
Group 2: teenagers between the age of 16-18
TEXT
AUDIO
Figure 15 - The total number of words that a participant has filled in correctly (total correct) and how often this
has occurred within the age group (frequency). The two tables show the results of the test carried out using the
text fragment (blue) and the audio fragment (orange).
Figure 16 – Graph compares the total number of words that a participant has filled in correctly (answers
correct) and how often this has occurred within the age group 16-18 (frequency) using the text fragment
(blue) and the audio fragment (orange).
Total
correct
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
frequency 0 0 0 2 1 6 6 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total
correct
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
frequency 2 2 3 2 4 5 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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Group 3: young adults between the age of 20-30
TEXT Totalcorrect
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
frequency 0 0 0 1 5 2 5 3 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
AUDIO
F igure 17 - The total number of words that a participant has filled in correctly (total correct) and how often this
has occurred within the age group (frequency). The two tables show the results of the test carried out using the
text fragment (blue) and audio fragment (orange).
Figure 18 – Graph compares the total number of words that a participant has filled in correctly (answers
correct) and how often this has occurred within the age group 20 - 30 (frequency) using the text fragment (blue)
and the audio fragment (orange).
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
F r e q u e n c y
Answers correct
Age group 20-30
Text
Audio
Total
correct
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
frequency 1 2 3 4 3 3 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
F r e q u e n c y
Answers correct
Age group 37-60
Text
Audio
Group 4: adults between the age of 37-60
TEXT
AUDIO
Figure 19 - The total number of words that a participant has filled in correctly (total correct) and how often this
has occurred within the age group (frequency). The two tables show the results of the test carried out using the
text fragment (blue) and the audio fragment (orange).
Figure 20 – Graph compares the total number of words that a participant has filled in correctly (answers
correct) and how often this has occurred within the age group 37-60 (frequency) using the text fragment (blue)
and the audio fragment (orange).
Total
correct
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
frequency 2 4 6 1 2 3 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total
correct
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
frequency 5 5 3 2 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
F r e q u e n c y
Answers correct
Age group 65+
Text
Audio
Group 5: elderly aged 65 or older
TEXT
Total
correct
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
frequency 10 6 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AUDIO
Figure 21 - The total number of words that a participant has filled in correctly (total correct) and how often this
has occurred within the age group (frequency). The three tables show the results of the test carried out using
the text fragment (blue), audio fragment (orange).
Figure 22 – Graph compares the total number of words that a participant has filled in correctly (answers
correct) and how often this has occurred within the age group 65+ (frequency) using the text fragment (blue)
and the audio fragment (orange).
Total
correct
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
frequency 12 5 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
F r e q u e
n c y
Answers correct
All age groups (text)
11-13
16-18
20-30
37-60
65+
Results age groups combined
Figure 23 – Graph shows the total number of words that a participant has filled in correctly (answers correct)
and how often this has occurred within the age group (frequency) comparing the results of age groups 11-13,
16-18 , 20-30, 37-60, 65+ that are obtained by using the text fragment.
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0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
F r e q u
e n c y
Answers correct
All age groups (audio)
11-13
16-18
20-30
37-60
65+
Figure 24 – Graph shows the total number of words that a participant has filled in correctly (answers correct)
and how often this has occurred within the age group (frequency) comparing the results of age groups 11-13,
16-18 , 20-30, 37-60, 65+ that are obtained by using the audio fragment.
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0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
11-13 16-18 20-30 37-60 65+
A v a r a g e s c o r e
Age group
Avarage scores per age group
Text
Audio
Average scores per age group
Figure 25 – Table shows the average scores of correct answers of age groups 11-13, 16-18 , 20-30, 37-60, 65+
using the text fragment as well as the audio fragment (separately).
Figure 26 – Graph shows the average scores of correct answers of age groups 11-13, 16-18 , 20-30, 37-60, 65+
using the text fragment (blue) as well as the audio fragment (audio).
Age group
11-13
Age group
16 -18
Age group
20-30
Age group
37-60
Age group
65+
Text 3.4 5.9 6.1 2.8 1.1
Audio 1.9 3.4 3.7 1.9 0.6
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Conclusion
In the introduction we asked ourselves the (sub) questions: “(1) what is the relationship between
seeing information and the short-term memory in different age groups?” and “(2) what is the
relationship between hearing information and the short-term memory in different age groups”. Ourhypothesis on these questions are: “(1) when people are confronted with visual information, they are
more capable of storing this in their short-term memory” and “ (2) when people are confronted with
auditory information, they are not able to store as much of the information in their short-term
memory.” When comparing the results (audio and visual) from the different age groups (figure 14,
17, 20, 23, 26), it appears that there is a clear pattern concerning the distinction between the results
obtained using the audio and text fragment in each age group. In each age group, the score obtained
when the participant is confronted with the audio fragment is distinctively lower than the score this
is obtained when the text fragment was used. Therefore we can conclude that our hypothesis on
these two sub questions are correct.
Using these previously asked (sub) questions combined with the experimental data obtained from
the practical work, this final paper intends to find out what the link is between the age of people and
their short term memory. We believed that ‘when people get older the functioning of their short-
term memory will impair.’ We based this on the fact that nerve cells, which are involved in a complex
chain of electrical and chemical reactions to store and reproduce information, become less effective
when a person gets older. Thus, we assumed that the short-term of our youngest age group is the
most effective and expected this age group to score highest in both tests. As we expected, a link
certainly exists between the age of people and their short-term memory. However, according to our
results the short-term memory reaches its full potential at a different age than we assumed. Which
means that our hypothesis is wrong on two areas.
First of all , figure 25 and 26 show that participants aged 11-13, 16-18, 20-30, 37-60 and 65+ scored
average scores of 3.4, 5.9, 3.2, 2.8 and 1.1 using the text fragment and 1.9,3.4,3.7, 1.9, 0.6 using the
audio fragment (following the same order as the order of the groups mentioned). What is significant
about these results is that the average scores obtained from both visual and auditory tests increases
and decrease according to the shape of a parabola. Therefore, we can conclude that, unlike we first
thought, the effectiveness of the short-term memory does not impair in a linear or straight line, but
increases and decreases according to the shape of a parabola ( see figure 27). Secondly, if we look at
figure 25 as well as 26 we can see that the participants aged 20-30 scored the highest number of
correct answers when carrying out the test using the text fragment (average score: 6.2) as well as
the audio fragment (average score: 3.2 ) compared to the other age groups. This shows that the
short-term memory reaches its full potential at age 20-30, and not the assumed age 11-13.
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Figure 27 – Sketch of graph showing the short-term memory capacity linked to the age.
Age
Memory
capacity
lower higher
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Evaluation
Although we have ruled out most factors that would have influenced our results in order to make our
research as conclusive as possible, there were some factors that might have had a slight effect on our
research outcome. First of all, we didn't factor in the differences in IQ of all our participents. To makeour results even more reliable we should definitely take this into account when performing a
following-up practical work. Because IQ may not have an influence on the quality of the words that
have to be recalled, but it certainly affects the quantity concerning the information that has to be
recalled. Furthemore we have to realise that there are several uncontrollable external factors such as
sleep deprivation, present at several age groups, as well. People who are sleep deprived can only
take in a small range of items at the same time, much smaller than the average range of people who
are not sleep deprived due to a reduced attention span. Secondly, although the participants were
seated in a quiet environment, we still noticed the inability of younger participants (11-13) to
concentrate on the text of audio fragment properly, which has unfortunately lead to a lower score
obtained by this age group. Finally, participants that might have difficulties with hearing or reading
(such as participants with dyslexia) might lowered the average score of the age group. These three
factors have affected the validity of our research and should be taken into account if the research is
repeated.
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Epilogue
The preparations for our final paper as a whole went immaculate. We had already finished the
theory, the list of equipment and the actual text and audio fragment for our practical work before
the summer holidays. However, we had some great difficulty with gathering the high amount ofparticipants so we changed the number of participants of each age group from 30 to 20.
Requiting participants of the age group 65+ took us the most time. The managers of the
convalescent home wouldn’t allow us to test the elderly living in their convalescent homes as they
were afraid of giving away private information of their patients. Even when we made clear that we
only needed their ages, we were unfortunately rejected. The age group young adults was less
difficult to gather, however it was not as easy as just visiting a university and attending a lecture, as
we first thought it would be.
Performing the test with the age groups of 11-13, 16-19 and 37-60 went, on the contrary, withoutany problems. Within one day of school we had collected all the results of the first two age groups
and we gathered the results of the age category 37-60 also surprisingly swift. So in the end, despite
some difficulties, we really enjoyed performing the test, especially the part in which the results
started to express a pattern, proving our hypothesize to be accurate.
At last something about our cooperation. We can peacefully say that our cooperation was perfect.
We divided the work equally and we helped each other when needed. There was never an argument
about something. There might have been a discussion somewhere along the way, but this only
improved and completed our work and what we had written down in the end. We both wanted our
final paper to be perfect and we think we are allowed to say that we definitely achieved this.
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SummaryWe started this final essay by asking ourselves the question: “What is the link between the age of
people and the functioning of their short-term memory?” Throughout this paper we have given the
answer to this question. But before we could answer this question with the use of the experimental
data we would gain in our practicum, we started off with some theory about what the short term
memory actually is.
The short-term memory is located in the hippocampus which can be find in one of the lobes on the
cerebral cortex. The short-term memory itself is a component of a larger and more complex
framework of processes and structures called the working memory. The short term-memory is
related to two other stores, one being the sensory memory and the other which is defined as the
long-term memory. We can compare the short-term memory store to the post-it note of the brain on
which pointers or keywords are scribbled down, such as words or numbers, which the brain is able to
assemble into a larger piece of information. The short-term memory has a limited duration of 20 to
30 seconds and in rare cases up to a minute. The capacity of the short-term memory is limited as well
as the short-term memory is able to hold seven, plus or minus two, separate digits or units at the
same time.
Aging reduces the functioning of the short-term memory. The brain needs to activate a complex
chain of electrical and chemical reactions in the nerve cells of the brain. When people get older these
nerve cells gradually get older as well which causes them to work less effective. However, at any age
the brain is capable of producing new nerve cells which means that short-term memory loss is not
inescapable. Nevertheless you have to keep training it. But not only the process of getting older has
its influence on the functioning of the short-term memory. Several diseases such as Alzheimer,
Schizophrenia and Aphasia, and factors such as drugs, sleep deprivation and alcohol do as well. They
damages the nerve cells in the hippocampus or block the process of transferring information from
the short-term memory store to the long-term one.
After plentiful brainstorming, creating diverse mind maps and our dedicated interest in the subject
Biology, we have chosen the short-term memory as the topic of our final paper. We decided on this
topic as it became clear that we could link the short-term memory to a large and interesting practical
work. In this practical work we created five different age groups.
With this information in the back of our minds we started with our practicum in which we exposed 5
different age categories to both and audio fragment and a text fragment. Both fragments contained
the same narrative which created the ability for both audiences to memorize the same information
given through the text or audio fragment. Afterwards we calculated an average score of 2,35 correct
answers of the age groups 11-13 and 37-60. The lowest average was 0,85 which was scored amongst
the people who were 65 or older. The highest average 4,15 was scored amongst the young adults
followed by the average of 3,65 scored within the age group 16-19. When we put these results in a
graph, the results formed a parabola.
As we had expected there was indeed a link between the age of people and their short-term memory.
However, the results showed that the short-term memory reaches its full potential at a different age
than we had expected, which means that our hypothesis is partly wrong. We thought that the
effectiveness of the short-term memory impaired in a straight line, but our results showed us the
opposite in the form of a parabola. In order to make our research as reliable as possible we’d
eliminated the factors that would have had an influence on our results. However there were still
several factors that might have had a slight effect on our research outcome. Such factors were the
sleep deprivation of some of our participants, the inability of our youngest age group to concentrate
on the text or audio fragment and the fact that some participants had dyslexia. These three factors
affected the validity of our research and should be taken into account if the research would be ever
repeated.
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Source list
Sources: Anatomy of the brain
[1] Wij zijn ons brein – Dick Swaab[2] http://biology.about.com/od/anatomy/p/temporal-lobes.htm
[3] http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Entorhinal_cortex
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_term_memory
Sources: What is the short-term memory
[1] http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/chapter-6-memory/deck/1267472
[2]http://web.missouri.edu/~cowann/docs/articles/1994/Cowan%20Current%20Directions%201994.
[3] http://psychology4a.com/memory%204.htm
[4] http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/AtkinsonShifrin.html
[5] http://www.simplypsychology.org/peterson-peterson.html
[6] http://www.human-memory.net/types_short.html
[7] https://courses.cit.cornell.edu/bionb330/slides/Lecture21_slides_alvarez_squire.pdf
[8] http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh27-2/186-196.pdf
[9] http://library.thinkquest.org/26618/en-5.2.2=sensory%20memory.htm
Sources: IQ and short-term memory
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence
[2] http://www.princeton.edu/~aconway/pdf/Abreu_Conway_Gathercole.pdf
[3] http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101129121123.htm
[4] http://www.psyarticles.com/intellect/iq-memory.htm
Sources: Aging influencing short-term memory
[1] http://www.human-memory.net/brain_neurons.html
[2] http://www.examiner.com/article/your-brain-is-a-muscle-use-it-or-lose-it
[3] http://www.helpguide.org/life/improving_memory.htm
Sources: Conditions and diseases influencing short term memory
[1] http://home.kpn.nl/paulienvandoorn/h1.html
[2] http://www.afasie.nl/aphasia/pdf/2/brochure1.pdf
[3] http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/schizophrenia/symptoms.html
[4] http://www.anoiksis.nl/content/schizofrenie
Sources: External factors short-term memory
[1] http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh27-2/186-196.pdf
[2] http://alcoholism.about.com/cs/dementia/a/blacer030617.htm
[3]http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/01/130127134212.htm?utm_source=feedburner&ut
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35
m_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+sciencedaily%2Fhealth_medicine+(ScienceDaily%3A+He
alth+%26+Medicine+News)
[4] http://www.brainworksneurotherapy.com/what-are-brainwaves
[5] http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070523113828.htm
Sources: The relation of vision and sound with the short-term memory
[1] http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Echoic%20Memory#ixzz2hcrvImTY
[2] http://www.simplypsychology.org/working%20memory.html
[3] http://www.acfos.org/publication/ourarticles/pdf/acfos2/gathercole.pdf
[4] http://www.jaredreser.com/Background/Psychology/SenandPer/PhonologicalLoop.html
[5]http://web.missouri.edu/~cowann/docs/articles/1994/Cowan%20Current%20Directions%201994.
[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina
[7] http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_02/d_02_cr/d_02_cr_vis/d_02_cr_vis.html
[8] https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/indexablecontent?id=uuid:fd127d31-af6a-434b-82a9-
6cb7015f830d&ds=DATA_FILE
[9] http://mindbrain.ucdavis.edu/people/sjluck/pdfs/Luck%202007%20Scholarpedia%20VSTM.pdf
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Anne Bosman
Datum Duur Plaats Activiteit
28 – 06 –‘13 1 uur Thuis Onderwerp oriëntatie (mind-map creëren)
29 - 06 – ‘13 30 minuten School 1e afspraak met begeleider
04 – 06 –‘13 30 minuten School Onderzoeksplan opstellen
05 – 06 – ’13 30 minuten School 2e afspraak met begeleider
31 – 06 –’13 30 minuten Thuis Tekst geschreven voor het practicum
01 - 07 – ‘13 3 uur Thuis Deelvragen en theorie opgesteld /
Randvoorwaarden en leeftijdsgroepen
opgesteld / Geluidsfragment opgenomen /
Practicum getest
02 - 07 - ‘13 1 uur 30 minuten School 3e afspraak met begeleider/ Verbeteren
onderzoeksplan/ Tekst en vragen voor het
practicum
03 – 07 – ‘13 2 uur 30 minuten School Research over het korte termijn geheugen (wat
is het en wat is de tijdsduur ervan)/ Inleding
geschreven04 – 07 – ‘13 4 uur School Theorie geschreven ‘anatomy of the brain’ en
‘conditions and diseases influencing short-term
memory’
05 – 07 – ‘13 3 uur 30 minuten School Research gedaan over ‘aging influencing short-
term memory’ / Materiaal en method
geschreven/ Test aangepast / Practicum getest
08 – 07 – ‘13 30 minuten School 4ᵉ afspraak met begeleider
08 – 07 – ‘13 5 uur Thuis Artikel ‘aging influencing short term memory’
geschreven/ research naar, en een begin
gemaakt aan ‘relation between vision and
short-term memory’ 09 – 07 – ‘13 1 uur Thuis Laatste artikel van theorie afgemaakt ‘relation
between vision and short-term memory’/ klaar
met wat we moesten doen voor de vakantie
09-09-13’ 10 minuten School 5e afspraak met begeleider
13-09-13’ 2 uur School Het onderzoek plannen: verzorgingstehuizen
bellen, mentoren eerste en zesde klas mailen
16-09-13’ 30 minuten Thuis Beantwoorden mails mentoren
16-09-13’ 20 minuten School 6e afspraak met begeleider
25-09-13’ Het 1e, 2
e, 5
e, 8
een
9e lesuur
School Onderzoek voorbereiden/ onderzoek afnemen
bij eerste klas en 2 zesde klassen/
bejaardentehuizen mailen en bellen03-10-13’ 15 minuten School Onderzoek afnemen bij mentorklas 6V
09-10-13’ 20 minuten Thuis Onderzoek afnemen bij een mevrouw van 65+
10-10-13’ 15 minuten School Onderzoek afnemen leraren grote pauze
13-10-13’ 30 minuten Thuis Adressen verzamelen van kennissen boven de
65 jaar voor het onderzoek
14-10-13’ 2 uur School Resultaten in tabel zetten/ planning maken
voor de rest van de week/ onderzoek afnemen
bij 2 leraren/ kennissen boven 65 mailen
15-10-13’ 3 uur School Theorie controleren/ profiel werkstuk in elkaar
zetten/ laatste mensen mailen om te vragen
voor hun deelname
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37
17-10-13’ 9 uur School/Thuis Laatste resultaten ophalen in de leeftijdsgroep
20-30 bij Erasmus Universiteit/ alle resultaten
verwerken/ samenvatting schrijven/ nawoord
schrijven/ laatste dingetjes aanpassen en
details afronden/ nakijken profielwerkstuk
30-11-‘13 1 uur Thuis Hoofdstuk IQ nakijken, Evaluatie en Discussieherschrijven, Conclusie checken,
Spellingfouten controleren
11-12-‘13 1 uur 30 minuten School Puntjes op de i
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Kelly Guo
Datum Duur Plaats Activiteit
28 – 06 –‘13 1 uur Thuis Onderwerp oriëntatie (mind-map creëren)
29 - 06 – ‘13 30 minuten School 1e afspraak met begeleider
04 – 06 –‘13 30 minuten School Onderzoeksplan opstellen
05 – 06 – ’13 30 minuten School 2e afspraak met begeleider
31 – 06 –’13 30 minuten Thuis Tekst geschreven voor het practicum
01 - 07 – ‘13 3 uur Thuis Deelvragen en theorie opgesteld /
Randvoorwaarden en leeftijdsgroepen
opgesteld / Geluidsfragment opgenomen /
Practicum getest
02 - 07 - ‘13 1 uur 30 minuten School 3e afspraak met begeleider/ Verbeteren
onderzoeksplan/ Tekst en vragen voor het
practicum
03 – 07 – ‘13 2 uur 30 minuten School Research over het korte termijn geheugen (wat
is het en wat is de tijdsduur ervan)/ Introductie
geschreven04 – 07 – ’13 4 uur School Research en theorie geschreven ‘functioning
short-term memory’/ Research ‘external
factors’
05 – 07 – ’13 3 uur 30 minuten School Research en theorie geschreven ‘IQ and short
term memory’ / Materiaal en methode /
Aangepast practicum getest
08 – 07 – ’13 3 uur Thuis Research en theorie geschreven ‘external
factors’
08 – 07 – ‘13 30 minuten School 4e afspraak met begeleider
08 – 07 – ‘13 3 uur School Research en theorie geschreven ‘ Short term
memory linked to audio’10 – 07 –‘13 3 uur 30 minuten Thuis Research en theorie geschreven ‘short term
memory linked to audio’
09 – 09 –‘13 10 minuten School 5e
afspraak met begeleider
13 – 09 –’13 2 uur School Emails versturen oproep deelname PWS
onderzoek mentoren eerste en zesde klas /
Tehuizen gebeld oproep deelname PWS
onderzoek
16 – 09 – ’13 20 minuten School 6e afspraak met begeleider
18 – 09 – ‘13 1ste tot 9de uur
(lesuren)
School Proef afleggen 6e klas tekst / Voorbereiden
questionnaires proef/ Tehuizen gebeld oproep
deelname PWS onderzoek / Universiteitengebeld deelname PWS onderzoek / Onderzoek
afgelegd 1ste
klassen zowel audio als tekst/
Onderzoek afgelegd 6de
klas tekst
25 – 09 – ‘13 50 minuten School Voorbereiden questionnaires proef / Proef
afleggen 6e klas audio
30 – 09 – ‘13 20 minuten School 7e afspraak met begeleider
08 – 10 – ’13 10 minuten School Vragenlijsten en tekst uitgedeeld ouders
09 – 10 – ’13 30 minuten School Proef afleggen leraren audio
10 – 10 – ‘13 60 minuten Overig Proef afleggen senioren tekst
13 – 10 – ‘13 1 uur 30 minuten Thuis Vragenlijsten klas 1 en 6 corrigeren en
8/13/2019 Final Paper Short-Term Memory - Anne Bosman Kelly Guo
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/final-paper-short-term-memory-anne-bosman-kelly-guo 39/39
resultaten in tabel
13 – 10 – ‘13 1 uur 30 minuten Thuis Theorie verbeteren, details controleren
14- 10 - ‘13 2 uur 30 minuten School Vragenlijsten leraren, senioren studenten
corrigeren en resultaten tabel en grafiek,
bronnenlijsten opstellen en PWS in elkaar
zetten.15-10-‘13 3 uur 15 minuten School PWS in elkaar zetten, resultaten tabel en
grafiek, afronden, Preface schrijven,
bronnenlijst afmaken
16-10-‘13 2 uur School PWS details afronden
18- 10 –‘13 9 uur School en
overig
Naar Erasmus universiteit afgereisd voor proef
PWS, laatste resultaten verwerken, grafieken
maken, conclusie schrijven, discussie en
conclusie schrijven, samenvatting schrijven
26- 11-‘13 30 minuten School 8e Afspraak PWS begleider
30-11-‘13 2 uur Thuis Resultaten verbeteren, Grafieken opnieuw
maken, Spellingsfouten vebeteren, Conclusieherschrijven.
11-12-‘13 1 uur 30 minuten School Puntjes op de i