MilitaryAdministrationinFrance

MilitrverwaltunginFrankreich

TerritoryunderGermanmilitaryadministration

19401944

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GermanmilitaryadministrationinoccupiedFranceduringWorldWarIIFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheMilitaryAdministrationinFrance(German:MilitrverwaltunginFrankreichFrench:OccupationdelaFranceparl'Allemagne)wasaninterimoccupationauthorityestablishedbyNaziGermanyduringWorldWarIItoadministertheoccupiedzoneinareasofnorthernandwesternFrance.Thissocalledzoneoccupewasrenamedzonenord("northzone")inNovember1942,whenthepreviouslyunoccupiedzoneinthesouthknownaszonelibre("freezone")wasalsooccupiedandrenamedzonesud("southzone").

ItsroleinFrancewaspartlygovernedbytheconditionssetbytheSecondArmisticeatCompigneaftertheblitzkriegsuccessoftheWehrmachtleadingtotheFallofFranceatthetimebothFrenchandGermansthoughttheoccupationwouldbetemporaryandlastonlyuntilBritaincametoterms,whichwasbelievedtobeimminent.Forinstance,Franceagreedthatitssoldierswouldremainprisonersofwaruntilthecessationofallhostilities.

ReplacingtheFrenchThirdRepublicthathaddissolvedduringFrance'sdefeatwasthe"FrenchState"(tatfranais),withitssovereigntyandauthoritylimitedtothefreezone.AsPariswaslocatedintheoccupiedzone,itsgovernmentwasseatedinthespatownofVichyinAuvergne,andthereforeitwasmorecommonlyknownasVichyFrance.

WhiletheVichygovernmentwasnominallyinchargeofallofFrance,themilitaryadministrationintheoccupiedzonewasadefactoNazidictatorship.ItsrulewasextendedtothefreezonewhenitwasinvadedbyGermanyandItalyduringCaseAntonon11November1942inresponsetooperationTorch,theAlliedlandingsinVichyFrenchNorthAfricaon8November1942.TheVichygovernmentremainedinexistence,eventhoughitsauthoritywasnowseverelycurtailed.

ThemilitaryadministrationinFranceendedwiththeLiberationofFranceaftertheNormandyandProvencelandings.ItformallyexistedfromMay1940toDecember1944,thoughmostofFrancehadbeenlostbytheendofsummer1944.

Contents

German(pink)andItalian(green)occupationzonesofFrance:thezoneoccupe,thezonelibre,thezone

interdite,theMilitaryAdministrationinBelgiumandNorthernFrance,andannexedAlsaceLorraine.

Capital Paris

Politicalstructure

Militaryadministration

MilitaryCommander 19401942 OttovonStlpnagel 19421944 CarlHeinrichvonStlpnagel 1944 KarlKitzinger

Historicalera WorldWarII

Contents

1Occupationzones2Administrativestructure3Collaboration4Occupationforces5Antipartisanactions6Civilians

6.1Dailylife6.2NightlifeinParis6.3Oppression

7Aftermath8Seealso9Notes10Furtherreading11Externallinks

Occupationzones

AlsaceLorraine,whichhadbeenannexedaftertheFrancoPrussianwarin1871bytheGermanEmpireandreturnedtoFranceaftertheFirstWorldWar,wasreannexedbytheThirdReich(thussubjectingtheirmalepopulationtoGermanmilitaryconscription.)ThedepartmentsofNordandPasdeCalaiswereattachedtothemilitaryadministrationinBelgiumandNorthernFrance,whichwasalsoresponsible[1]forcivilianaffairsinthe20kilometres(20,000m)widezoneinterditealongtheAtlanticcoast.Another"forbiddenzone"wereareasinnortheasternFrance,correspondingtoLorraineandroughlyabouthalfeachofFrancheComt,ChampagneandPicardie.Warrefugeeswereprohibitedfromreturningtotheirhomesthere,anditwasintendedforGermansettlersandannexation[2]inthecomingNaziNewOrder(NeueOrdnung).

SecondCompignearmistice 22June1940

CaseAnton 11November1942 German

retreatsummer1944

GermansoldiersmarchthroughtheArcdeTriompheontheAvenuedesChampslysesinParis(June1940).

GermancontrolpostontheDemarcationLine[5]

Theoccupiedzone(French:zoneoccupe,Frenchpronunciation:[zonkype],German:BesetztesGebiet)consistedoftherestofnorthernandwesternFrance,includingthetwoforbiddenzones.

ThesouthernpartofFrance,exceptforapproximatelythewesternhalfofAquitaine,becamethezonelibre("freezone"),wheretheVichyregimeremainedsovereignasanindependentstate,thoughunderheavyGermaninfluenceduetotherestrictionsoftheArmistice(includingaheavytribute)andeconomicaldependencyonGermany.Itconstitutedalandareaof246,618squarekilometres,approximately45percentofFrance,andincludedapproximately33percentofthetotalFrenchlaborforce.[3]Thedemarcationlinebetweenthefreezoneandtheoccupiedzonewasadefactoborder,necessitatingspecialauthorisationandalaissezpasserfromtheGermanauthoritiestocross.[4]

ThoserestrictionsremainedinplaceafterVichywasoccupiedandthezonerenamedzonesud("southzone"),andalsoplacedundermilitaryadministrationinNovember1942.

TheItalianoccupationzoneconsistedofsmallareasalongtheAlpsborder,anda50kilometres(50,000m)demilitarisedzonealongthesame.Itwasexpandedtoallterritory[6][7]ontheleftbankoftheRhneriverafteritsinvasiontogetherwithGermanyofVichyFranceon11November1942,exceptforareasaroundLyonandMarseille,whichwereaddedtoGermany'szonesud,andCorsica.

TheItalianoccupationzonewasalsooccupiedbyGermanyandaddedtothezonesudafterItaly'ssurrenderinSeptember1943,exceptforCorsica,whichwasliberatedbythelandingsofFreeFrenchforcesandlocalItaliantroopsthathadswitchedsidestotheAllies.

Administrativestructure

AfterGermanyandFranceagreedonanarmisticefollowingthedefeatsofMayandJune,MarshalWilhelmKeitelandGeneralCharlesHuntzinger,representativesoftheThirdReichandoftheFrench

governmentofMarshalPhilippePtainrespectively,signediton22June1940attheRethondesclearinginCompigneForest.AsitwasdoneatthesameplaceandinthesamerailroadcarriagewherethearmisticeendingtheFirstWorldWarwhenGermanysurrendered,itisknownastheSecondCompignearmistice.

Francewasroughlydividedintoanoccupiednorthernzoneandanunoccupiedsouthernzone,accordingtothearmisticeconvention"inordertoprotecttheinterestsoftheGermanReich".[8]TheFrenchcolonialempireremainedundertheauthorityofMarshallPtain'sVichyregime.FrenchsovereigntywastobeexercisedoverthewholeofFrenchterritory,includingtheoccupiedzone,AlsaceandMoselle,butthethirdarticleofthearmisticestipulatedthatFrenchauthoritiesintheoccupiedzonewouldhavetoobeythemilitaryadministrationandthatGermanywouldexerciserightsofanoccupyingpowerwithinit:

IntheoccupiedregionofFrance,theGermanReichexercisesalloftherightsofanoccupyingpower.TheFrenchgovernmentundertakestofacilitateineverywaypossibletheimplementationoftheserights,andtoprovidetheassistanceoftheFrenchadministrativeservicestothatend.TheFrenchgovernmentwillimmediatelydirectallofficialsandadministratorsoftheoccupiedterritorytocomplywiththeregulationsof,andtocollaboratefullywith,theGermanmilitaryauthorities.[8]

ThemilitaryadministrationwasresponsibleforcivilaffairsinoccupiedFrance.Itwasdividedintokommandanturen(singularkommandantur),indecreasinghierarchicalorderOberfeldkommandanturen,Feldkommandanturen,Kreiskommandanturen,andOrtskommandanturen.

Collaboration

Inordertosuppresspartisansandresistancefighters,themilitaryadministrationcooperatedcloselywiththeGestapo,theSicherheitsdienst,theintelligenceserviceoftheSS,andtheSicherheitspolizei,itssecuritypolice.ItalsohaditsdispositionthesupportoftheFrenchauthoritiesandpoliceforces,whohadtocooperatepertheconditionssetinthearmistice,toroundupJews,antifascistsandotherdissidents,andvanishthemintoNachtundNebel,"NightandFog".ItalsohadthehelpofcollaborationistsauxiliariesliketheMilice,theFrancGardesandtheLegionaryOrderService.ThetwomaincollaborationistpoliticalpartiesweretheFrenchPopularParty(PPF)andtheNationalPopularRally(RNP),eachwith20,000to30,000members.

TheMiliceparticipatedwithLyonGestapoheadKlausBarbieinseizingmembersoftheresistanceandminoritiesincludingJewsforshipmenttodetentioncentres,suchastheDrancydeportationcamp,enroutetoAuschwitz,andotherGermanconcentrationcamps,includingDachauandBuchenwald.

FrenchmenalsovolunteereddirectlyinGermanforcestofightforGermanyand/oragainstBolsheviks,suchastheLegionofFrenchVolunteersAgainstBolshevism.Volunteersfromthisandotheroutfitslaterconstitutedthecadreofthe33rdWaffenGrenadierDivisionoftheSSCharlemagne(1stFrench).

StanleyHoffmannin1974,[9]andafterhim,otherhistorianssuchasRobertPaxtonandJeanPierreAzmahaveusedthetermcollaborationnistestorefertofascistsandNazisympathiserswho,forideologicalreasons,wishedareinforcedcollaborationwithHitler'sGermany,incontrastto"collaborators",peoplewhomerelycooperatedoutofselfinterest.ExamplesofthesearePPFleaderJacquesDoriot,writerRobertBrasillachorMarcelDat.Aprincipalmotivationandideologicalfoundationamongcollaborationnisteswasanticommunism.[9]

Occupationforces

Untilthethreatofinvasionbeganloominglarge,withtheDiepperaidmarkingitsrealbeginning,theWehrmachtmaintainedacoupledozendivisionsinFrance.WhenthebulkoftheWehrmachtwasfightingontheeasternfront,GermanunitswererotatedtoFrancetorestandrefit.Asthewarwenton,garrisoningtheAtlanticWallandsuppressingtheresistancebecameheavierandheavierduties.TheactionsofBritishCommandosagainstGermantroopsbroughtHitlertocondemnthemasirregularwarfare.InhisCommandoOrderhedeniedthemlawfulcombatantstatus,andorderedthemtobehandedovertotheSSsecurityservicewhencapturedandliabletobesummarilyexecuted.

SomenotableunitsandformationsstationedinFranceduringtheoccupation:

1940:Luftflotte2,Luftflotte3operatedfromairfieldsinnorthernFranceduringtheBattleofEngland.Luftflotte3stayedtheretodefendagainstthealliedstrategicbombinguntilithadtoretreatin1944.

1941:BattlecruisersScharnhorstandGneisenau.ThebattleshipBismarckwassunkwhiletryingtoreachFrenchAtlanticharboursafteritscommissioning.

1942:2ndSSPanzerDivisionDasReich,4thSSPoliceRegiment

1943:AttheheightofthebattleoftheAtlantic,between60andovera100GermanUboatswerestationedinsubmarinepensinFrenchatlanticportssuchLaRochelle,Bordeaux,SaintNazaire,Brest,andLorient.

1944:157thMountain(Reserve)Division,PanzerLehr,XIXthArmy,716thStaticInfantryDivision,12thSSPanzerDivisionHitlerjugend.

Antipartisanactions

AvolunteeroftheFrenchRsistanceinteriorforce(FFI)atChteaudunin1944

The"Appealof18June"bydeGaulle'sFreeFrancegovernmentinexileinLondonhadlittleimmediateeffect,andfewjoineditsFrenchForcesoftheInteriorbeyondthosethathadalreadygoneintoexiletojointheFreeFrench.AftertheinvasionoftheSovietUnioninJune1941,theFrenchcommunistparty,hithertounderordersfromtheCominterntoremainpassiveagainsttheGermanoccupiers,begantomountactionsagainstthem.deGaullesentJeanMoulinbacktoFranceashisformallinktotheirregularsthroughouttheoccupiedcountrytocoordinatetheeightmajorRsistancegroupsintooneorganisation.Moulingottheiragreementtoformthe"NationalCounciloftheResistance"(ConseilNationaldelaRsistance).

Moulinwaseventuallycaptured,anddiedunderbrutaltorturebytheGestapo,possiblybyKlausBarbiehimself.TheresistanceintensifiedafteritbecameclearthetideofwarhadshiftedaftertheReich'sdefeatatStalingradinearly1943,andby1944largeremoteareaswereoutoftheGermanmilitary'scontrolandfreezonesforthemaquisards,socalledafterthemaquisshrublandthatprovidedidealterrainforguerrillawarfare.

ThemostimportantantipartisanactionwastheBattleofVercors.ThemostinfamousoneOradoursurGlane.OthernotableatrocitiescommittedweretheLeParadismassacre,theMaillmassacre,andtheAscqmassacre.LargemaquisweresignificantmilitaryoperationswereconductedincludedthemaquisduVercors,themaquisduLimousin,themaquisdesGlires,themaquisduMontMouchet,andthemaquisdeSaintMarcel.MajorroundupoperationswerethebattleofMarseillesandtheVlodromed'Hiverroundup.

AlthoughthemajorityoftheFrenchpopulationdidnottakepartinactiveresistance,manyresistedpassivelythroughactssuchaslisteningtothebannedBBC'sRadioLondres,orgivingcollateralormaterialaidtoResistancemembers.OthersassistedintheescapeofdownedUSorBritishairmenwhoeventuallyfoundtheirwaybacktoBritain,oftenthroughSpain.

Bytheeveoftheliberation,numerousfactionsofnationalists,anarchists,communists,socialistsandothers,countingbetween100,000andupto400,000combatants,wereactivelyfightingtheoccupationforces.SupportedbytheSpecialOperationsExecutiveandtheOfficeofStrategicServicesthatairdroppedweaponsandsupplies,aswellasinfiltratingagentslikeNancyWakethatprovidedtacticaladviceandspecialistskillslikeradiooperationanddemolition,theysystematicallysabotagedrailwaylines,destroyedbridges,cutGermansupplylines,andprovidedgeneralintelligencetothealliedforces.Germanantipartisanoperationsclaimedaround13,00016,000Frenchvictims,including4,000to5,000completelyinnocentcivilians.[10]

Attheendofthewar,some580,000Frenchhaddied(40,000ofthesebythewesternAlliedforcesduringthebombardmentsofthefirst48hoursofoperationOverlord).Militarydeathswere92,000in193940.Some58,000werekilledinactionfrom1940to1945fightingintheFreeFrenchforces.Some40,000malgrnous("againstourwill"),citizensofreannexedAlsaceLorrainedraftedintotheWehrmacht,becamecasualties.Civiliancasualtiesamountedtoaround150,000(60,000byaerialbombing,60,000intheresistance,and30,000murderedbyGermanoccupationforces).Prisonersofwaranddeporteetotalswerearound1.9million.Ofthis,around240,000diedincaptivity.Anestimated40,000wereprisonersofwar,100,000racialdeportees,60,000politicalprisonersand40,000diedasslavelabourers.[11]

Civilians

Dailylife

ThelifeoftheFrenchduringtheGermanoccupationwasmarked,fromthebeginning,byendemicshortages.Theyareexplainedbyseveralfactors:

1. Oneoftheconditionsofthearmisticewastopaythecostsofthe300,000strongoccupyingGermanarmy,whichamountedto20millionReichmarksperday.TheartificialexchangerateoftheGermancurrencyagainsttheFrenchfrancwasconsequentlyestablished

as1RMto20FF.[12]ThisallowedGermanrequisitionsandpurchasestobemadeintoaformoforganisedplunderandresultedinendemicfoodshortagesandmalnutrition,particularlyamongstchildren,theelderly,andthemorevulnerablesectionsofFrenchsociety

suchastheworkingurbanclassofthecities.[13]

2. Thedisorganisationoftransport,exceptfortherailwaysystemwhichreliedonFrenchdomesticcoalsupplies.3. ThecuttingoffofinternationaltradeandtheAlliedblockade,restrictingimportsintothecountry.4. Theextremeshortageofpetrolanddieselfuel.Francehadnoindigenousoilproductionandallimportshadstopped.5. Labourshortages,particularlyinthecountryside,duetothelargenumberofFrenchprisonersofwarheldinGermany.

Ersatz,ormakeshiftsubstitutes,tooktheplaceofmanyproductsthatwereinshortsupplywoodgasgeneratorsontrucksandautomobilesburnedcharcoalorwoodpelletsasasubstitutetogasoline,andwoodensolesforshoeswereusedinsteadofleather.Soapwasrareandmadeinsomehouseholdsfromfatsandcausticsoda.Coffeewasreplacedbytoastedbarleymixedwithchicory,andsugarwithsaccharin.

TheGermansseizedabout80percentoftheFrenchfoodproduction,whichcausedseveredisruptiontothehouseholdeconomyoftheFrenchpeople.[14]Frenchfarmproductionfellinhalfbecauseoflackoffuel,fertilizerandworkersevensotheGermansseizedhalfthemeat,20percentoftheproduce,and80percentofthechampagne.[15]SupplyproblemsquicklyaffectedFrenchstoreswhichlackedmostitems.

Facedwiththesedifficultiesineverydaylife,thegovernmentansweredbyrationing,andcreatingfoodchartsandticketswhichweretobeexchangedforbread,meat,butterandcookingoil.Therationingsystemwasstringentbutbadlymismanaged,leadingtomalnourishment,blackmarkets,andhostilitytostatemanagementofthefoodsupply.Theofficialrationprovidedstarvationleveldietsof1300orfewercaloriesaday,supplementedbyhomegardensand,especially,blackmarketpurchases.[16]

RationingticketsfortheFrenchpopulation(July1944)

Hungerprevailed,especiallyaffectingyouthinurbanareas.Thequeueslengthenedinfrontofshops.Intheabsenceofmeatandotherfoodsincludingpotatoes,peopleateunusualvegetables,suchasSwedishturnipandJerusalemartichoke.Foodshortagesweremostacuteinthelargecities.Inthemoreremotecountryvillages,however,clandestineslaughtering,vegetablegardensandtheavailabilityofmilkproductspermittedbettersurvival.

Somepeoplebenefitedfromtheblackmarket,wherefoodwassoldwithoutticketsatveryhighprices.Farmersdivertedespeciallymeattotheblackmarket,whichmeantthatmuchlessfortheopenmarket.Counterfeitfoodticketswerealsoincirculation.Directbuyingfromfarmersinthecountrysideandbarteragainstcigaretteswerealsofrequentpracticesduringthisperiod.Theseactivitieswerestrictlyforbiddenhoweverandthuscarriedoutattheriskofconfiscationandfines.

Duringtheday,numerousregulations,censorshipandpropagandamadetheoccupationincreasinglyunbearable.Atnight,inhabitantshadtoabideacurfewanditwasforbiddentogooutduringthenightwithoutanAusweis.Theyhadtoclosetheirshuttersorwindowsandturnoffanylight,topreventAlliedaircraftusingcitylightsfornavigation.

Withnearly75,000inhabitantskilledand550,000tonsofbombsdropped,Francewas,afterGermany,thesecondmostseverelybombdevastatedcountryontheWesternFrontofWorldWarII.[17]AlliedbombingswereparticularlyintensebeforeandduringOperationOverlordin1944.

TheAllies'TransportationPlanaimingatthesystematicdestructionofFrenchrailwaymarshallingyardsandrailwaybridges,in1944,alsotookaheavytolloncivilianlives.Forexample,the26May1944bombinghitrailwaytargetsinandaroundfivecitiesinsoutheasternFrance,causingover2,500civiliandeaths.[18]

CrossingthelignededmarcationbetweenthenorthzoneandthesouthzonealsorequiredanAusweis,whichwasdifficulttoacquire.[4]Peoplecouldwriteonlytotheirfamilymembers,andthiswasonlypermissibleusingaprefilledcardwherethesendercheckedofftheappropriatewords(e.g.'ingoodhealth','wounded','dead','prisoner').[4]TheoccupiedzonewasonGermantime,whichwasonehouraheadoftheunoccupiedzone.[4]Otherpoliciesimplementedintheoccupiedzonebutnotinthefreezonewereacurfewfrom10p.mto5a.m,abanonAmericanfilms,thesuppressionofdisplayingtheFrenchflagandsingingtheMarseillaise,andthebanningofVichyparamilitaryorganizationsandtheVeterans'Legion.[4]

Schoolchildrenweremadetosing"Marchal,nousvoil!"("Marshall,hereweare!").TheportraitofMarshalPhilippePtainadornedthewallsofclassrooms,thuscreatingapersonalitycult.PropagandawaspresentineducationtotraintheyoungpeoplewiththeideasofthenewVichyregime.However,therewasnoresumptioninideologyasinotheroccupiedcountries,forexampleinPoland,wheretheteachingelite

TheshowwentonduringtheGermanoccupation,andprostitutionwasinitsheyday.

wasliquidated.Teacherswerenotimprisonedandtheprogramswerenotmodifiedoverall.IntheprivateCatholicsector,manyschooldirectorshidJewishchildrenbyprovidingeducationforthemuntiltheliberation.

NightlifeinParis

Onemonthaftertheoccupation,thebimonthysoldiers'magazineDerDeutscheWegleiterfrParis(TheGermanGuidetoParis)wasfirstpublishedbytheParisKommandantur,andbecameasuccess.[19]Furtherguides,suchastheGuidearyien,countede.g.theMoulinRougeamongthemustseelocationsinParis.[20]FamousclubssuchastheFoliesBellevilleorBobinowerealsoamongthesoughtaftervenues.AwidearrayofGermanunitswererotatedtoFrancetorestandrefittheGermansusedthemotto"JedereinmalinParis"("everyoneonceinParis")andprovided'recreationalvisits'tothecityfortheirtroops.[21]Variousfamousartists,suchasEdithPiaf,YvesMontand,orlaterLesCompagnonsdelachanson,startedtheircareersduringtheoccupation.PiafherselflivedaboveL'toiledeKlber,afamousbordelloontheRueLauriston,whichwasneartotheCarlingueheadquartersandoftenfrequentedbyGermantroops.ThecurfewinPariswasnotupheldasstrictlyasinothercities.

TheDjangoReinhardtsongNuages,performedbyReinhardtandtheQuintetoftheHotClubofFranceintheSallePleyel,gainednotorietyamongbothFrenchandGermanfans.ReinhardtwaseveninvitedtoplayfortheOberkommandoderWehrmacht.[22]TheuseandabuseofParisinthevisitationsofGermanforcesduringtheSecondWorldWarledtoabacklashtheintensiveprostitutionduringtheoccupationmadewayfortheLoideMartheRichardin1946,whichclosedthebordellosandreducedraunchystageshowstomeredancingevents.

Oppression

DuringtheGermanoccupation,aforcedlabourpolicy,calledServiceduTravailObligatoire("Obligatoryworkservice,STO"),consistedoftherequisitionandtransferofhundredsofthousandsofFrenchworkerstoGermanyagainsttheirwill,fortheGermanwareffort.Inadditiontoworkcampsforfactories,agriculture,andrailroads,forcedlabourwasusedforV1launchsitesandothermilitaryfacilitiestargetedbytheAlliesinOperationCrossbow.Beginningin1942,manyrefusedtobedraftedtofactoriesandfarmsinGermanybytheSTO,goingundergroundtoavoidimprisonmentandsubsequentdeportationtoGermany.Forthemostpart,those"workdodgers"(rfractaires)becamemaquisards.

TherewereGermanreprisalsagainstciviliansinoccupiedcountriesinFrance,theNazisbuiltanexecutionchamberinthecellarsoftheformerMinistryofAviationbuildinginParis.[23]

ManyJewswerevictimsoftheHolocaustinFrance.Approximately49concentrationcampswereinuseinFranceduringtheoccupation,thelargestofthematDrancy.Intheoccupiedzone,asof1942,JewswererequiredtoweartheyellowbadgeandwereonlyallowedtorideinthelastcarriageoftheParisMtro.13,152JewsresidingintheParisregionwerevictimsofamassarrestbyproNaziFrenchauthoritieson16and17July1942,knownastheVel'd'HivRoundup,andweretransportedtoAuschwitzwheretheywerekilled.[24]

Overall,accordingtoadetailedcountdrawnunderSergeKlarsfeld,slightlybelow77,500oftheJewsresidinginFrancediedduringthewar,overwhelminglyafterbeingdeportedtodeathcamps.[25][26]OutofaJewishpopulationinFrancein1940of350,000,thismeansthatsomewhatlessthanaquarterdied.Whilehorrific,themortalityratewaslowerthaninotheroccupiedcountries(e.g.75percentintheNetherlands)and,becausethemajorityoftheJewswererecentimmigrantstoFrance(mostlyexilesfromGermany),moreJewslivedinFranceattheendoftheoccupationthandidapproximately10yearsearlierwhenHitlerformallycametopower.[27]

TheyellowDavid'sstarmademandatorybytheVichyregimeinFrance

"Jewsnotadmittedhere".SignoutsidearestaurantinParis,ruedeChoiseul

FrenchJewishwomenwearingtheyellowbadge

GermansoldiersenteringasynagogueinBrestthathasbeenconvertedintoaSoldatenbordell(militarybrothel)

AdolfHitlerstrollinginfrontoftheEiffeltowerinParis,23June1940.

ExecutionchamberinspectedbyaParisianpolicemanandmembersoftheFFIaftertheliberation.

GermanroadsignsinoccupiedParis.TheFeldgendarmeriewasresponsibleformilitarytraffic.

Germansoldiersandcapturedcommunists,July1944

Aftermath

TheLiberationofFrancewastheresultoftheAlliedoperationsOverlordandDragooninthesummerof1944.MostofFrancewasliberatedbySeptember1944.SomeoftheheavilyfortifiedFrenchAtlanticcoastsubmarinebasesremainedstaybehind"fortresses"untiltheGermancapitulationinMay1945.TheFreeFrenchexilegovernmentdeclaredthereestablishmentofaprovisionalFrenchRepublic,insuringcontinuitywiththedefunctThirdRepublic.ItsetaboutraisingnewtroopstoparticipateintheadvancetotheRhineandtheinvasionofGermany,usingtheFrenchForcesoftheInteriorasmilitarycadresandmanpowerpoolsofexperiencedfighterstoallowaverylargeandrapidexpansionoftheFrenchLiberationArmy(ArmefranaisedelaLibration).ItwaswellequippedandwellsupplieddespitetheeconomicdisruptionbroughtbytheoccupationthankstoLendLease,andgrewfrom500,000meninthesummerof1944tomorethan1.3millionbyVEday,makingitthefourthlargestAlliedarmyinEurope.[28]

TheFrench2ndArmouredDivision,tipofthespearoftheFreeFrenchforcesthathadparticipatedintheNormandyCampaignandhadliberatedParison25August1944,wentontoliberateStrasbourgon23November1944,thusfulfillingtheOathofKuframadebyGeneralLeclercalmostfouryearsearlier.Theunitunderhiscommand,barelyabovecompanysizewhenithadcapturedtheItalianfort,hadgrownintoafullstrengtharmoureddivision.

ThespearheadoftheFreeFrenchFirstArmythathadlandedinProvencewastheICorps.Itsleadingunit,theFrench1stArmouredDivision,wasthefirstWesternAlliedunittoreachtheRhne(25August1944),theRhine(19November1944)andtheDanube(21April1945).On22April1945,itcapturedtheSigmaringenenclaveinBadenWrttemberg,wherethelastVichyregimeexiles,includingMarshalPtain,werehostedbytheGermansinoneoftheancestralcastlesoftheHohenzollerndynasty.

AplaquecommemoratingtheOathofKufranearthecathedralofStrasbourg,thecapitalofAlsaceandElsaLothringen,andafterthewar,acapitalofEuropeasasymbolofpeaceandreconciliation.

Collaboratorswereputontrialinlegalpurges(purationlgale),andanumberwereexecutedfortreason,amongthemPierreLaval,Vichy'sprimeministerin194244.TheMarshalPtain,"ChiefoftheFrenchState"andVerdunhero,wasalsocondemnedtodeathbuthissentencewascommutedtolife.ThousandsofcollaboratorsweresummarilyexecutedbylocalResistanceforcesinsocalled"savagepurges"(purationsauvage).

Seealso

FreeFranceVichyFranceMilitaryAdministration(NaziGermany)

Notes

1. Vinen,Richard(2006).TheUnfreeFrench:LifeundertheOccupation(1sted.).London:AllenLane.pp.1056.ISBN0713994967.2. Schttler,Peter(2003)." 'EineArt"GeneralplanWest":DieStuckartDenkschriftvom14.Juni1940unddiePlanungenfreineneuedeutsch

franzsischeGrenzeimZweitenWeltkrieg.".Sozial.Geschichte(inGerman)18(3):83131.3. "Lalignededmarcation",CollectionMmoireetCitoyennet,No.7(http://www.defense.gouv.fr/sga/content/download/46040/457868/file/n7_

_la_ligne_de_demarcation_mc07.pdf)PDF4. Jackson,Julian(2003).France:thedarkyears,19401944.OxfordUniversityPress.p.247.ISBN0199254575.5. Thenamelignededmarcationdidnotfigureinthetermsofthearmistice,butwascoinedasatranslationoftheGermanDemarkationslinie.6. GiorgioRochat,(trad.AnnePilloud),Lacampagneitaliennedejuin1940danslesAlpesoccidentales,Revuehistoriquedesarmes,No.250,2008,

pp7784(http://rha.revues.org/index187.html),surlesiteduServicehistoriquedelaDfense,rha.revues.org.Misenlignele6juin2008,consultle24octobre2008.

7. Loccupationitalienne(http://www.resistanceenisere.com/Commun/docs/1/Doc185.PDF),resistanceenisere.com.Retrieved24October2008.8. Laconventiond'armistice(http://mjp.univperp.fr/france/1940armistice.htm),surlesitedel'UniversitdePerpignan,mjp.univperp.fr,accessed

November29,2008.9. Hoffmann,Stanley(1974)."LadroiteVichy".EssaissurlaFrance:dclinourenouveau?.Paris:LeSeuil.

10. PeterLieb:KonventionellerKriegoderNSWeltanschauungskrieg?KriegfhrungundPartisanenbekmpfunginFrankreich1943/44,Mnchen,OldenbourgWissenschaftsverlag,2007,ISBN9783486579925

11. DearandFoot2005,p.321.DearFoot(2005).TheOxfordCompaniontoWorldWarII.p.321.

Furtherreading

Bueltzingsloewen,Isabellevon(ed)(2005)."Mortsd'inanition":FamineetexclusionsenFrancesousl'Occupation.Rennes:PressesUniversitairesdeRennes.ISBN275350136XPhilippeBurrin(1998).FranceUndertheGermans:CollaborationandCompromise.NewYork:NewPress.ISBN1565844394.

12. TheAmericanHistoricalAssociation.act=justtop&url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ahr/111.5/br_161.html"BookReviewofMortsd'inanition:FamineetexclusionsenFrancesousl'Occupation"(http://www.historycooperative.org/cgibin/justtop.cgi?).Retrieved20071215.

13. MarieHelenMercierandJ.LouiseDespert."EffectsofWaronFrenchchildren"(http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/reprint/5/3/266.pdf).Retrieved20071215.

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Gildea,Robert(2002).MarianneinChains:InSearchoftheGermanOccupation19401945.London:Macmillan.ISBN9780333782309Hirschfeld,G.&MarshP.(eds)(1989).CollaborationinFrance:PoliticsandCultureduringtheNaziOccupation19401944.Oxford:Berg.Jackson,JulianT.(2001).France:TheDarkYears,19401944.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0198207069

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