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Grammar &Vocabulary
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Important rules for nouns
1) Subject-Verb Agreement rule2) Parallelism (For every sentence)
3) Some nouns have the same formwhether they are singular or plural
swine, series, deer, sheep, moose,
species, aircraft, etc.4) Use of the collective noun.
5) Correct use of apostrophes.
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Important rules for pronouns
Case conundrum resolved
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Important pointers for pronouns
1) N-P-N-G Agreement rule
2) Ambiguous pronoun
3) Relative pronoun
4) Distributive pronoun
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Important pointers for verbs
1) Uses of tenses
2) Auxiliaries
3) Modal auxiliaries
4) S-V concord
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Important pointers for adjectives
1) Degrees of comparison
2) Comparing 2 like things
3) Order of Adjectives : size, followed by
general description of personality or
emotion, followed by age, shape,colour, origin, material and purpose in
the same order.
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Important pointers for adverbs
1) Types of adverbs
2) Location, location, location!
1) A preposition should be followed by anoon.2) Pray!
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Important pointers for conjunctions
1) Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS).
2) Subordinating Conjunctions : clause
defining (who, whom, what, which,that, when, where, why, how).
3) Reason : as, for, because, since.
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The perils of punctuation
We had one problem
only Janet knew wefaced bankruptcy
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The perils of punctuation
We had one problem:
only Janet knew wefaced bankruptcy.
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The perils of punctuation
We had one problem
only: Janet knew wefaced bankruptcy.
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The perils of punctuation
We had one problem
only, Janet knew: wefaced bankruptcy.
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The perils of punctuation
We had one problem
only Janet knew wefaced: bankruptcy.
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The full stop. Period!
The full stop (.), also called the period, is
chiefly used to mark the end of a
sentence expressing a statement.
Most common error : Connecting 2statements with a comma, instead of the
period.
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Ex : The British are notoriously bad at
learning foreign languages, the Dutch arefamously good at it.
To sum up :
Put a full stop at the end of a complete
statement.
Do not connect two statements with a
comma.
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The question mark
A question mark (?) is placed at the endof a sentence which is a direct question.
Ex : Does anyone have a pen I can
borrow?
Who told you that?
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If the question is a direct quotation,repeating the speaker's exact words, a
question mark is still used.
Ex : 'Have you a pen I can borrow?' she
asked.
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A question mark is not used in anindirect question, in which the speaker's
exact words are not repeated.
Ex : She asked if I had a pen she could
borrow.
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The question mark also has one minoruse : it may be inserted into the middleof something, inside parentheses, to
show that something is uncertain.
Ex : The famous allegorical poem PiersPlowman is attributed to WilliamLangland (?1332-?14oo).
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To sum up :
Use a question mark at the end of a
direct question. Do not use a question mark at the end
of an indirect question.
Use an internal question mark to show
that something is uncertain.
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The exclamation mark
The exclamation mark (!), known informally asa bang or a shriek, is used at the end of a
sentence or a short phrase which expresses
very strong feeling.
Ex :
That's fantastic!Good heavens!
Aaarrgh!
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An exclamation mark is also usual afteran exclamation beginning with what or
how.
Ex : What fools people can be!
How well Jadeja bowled yesterday!
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You can also use an exclamation mark toshow that a statement is very surprising.
Ex : After months of careful work, the
scientists finally opened the tomb.
It was empty!
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It is also permissible to use anexclamation mark to draw attention to
an interruption.
Ex :
On the (rare!) occasion when you use a
Latin abbreviation, be sure to punctuate
it properly.
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Don't use an exclamation mark unlessyou're certain it's necessary and never
use two or three of them in a row.
Ex : This is a sensational result!!!
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To sum up :
Don't use an exclamation mark unless it'sabsolutely necessary.
Use an exclamation mark after anexclamation, especially after onebeginning with what or how.
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A final point!
Note that a full stop, a question mark oran exclamation mark is never preceded
by a space.
Ex : How well has Darwin's theory stood
up ?
A sentence-final punctuation mark is
always written next to the last word of
the sentence.
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The comma
The comma (,) is very frequently usedand very frequently used wrongly.
Please note that a comma is never
preceded by a space and is always
followed by a space.
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The listing comma
The listing comma is used as a kind ofsubstitute for the word and, or
sometimes foror.
It is used in a list when three or more
words, phrases or even complete
sentences are joined by the word and
oror.
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Ex :
The Three Musketeers were Athos,
Porthos and Aramis.You can fly to Bombay via Moscow, via
Athens or via Cairo.
Lisa speaks French, Juliet speaks Italian
and I speak Spanish.
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Note also that it is not usual in Britishusage to put a listing comma before the
word and oror itself (though American
usage regularly puts one there). So, in
British usage, it is notusual to write like
this -The Three Musketeers were Athos,
Porthos, and Aramis.
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However, you should put a comma inthis position if doing so would make your
meaning clearer:
My favourite opera composers are Verdi,
Puccini, Mozart, and Gilbert and Sullivan.
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A listing comma is also used in a list of
modifiers which all modify the same
thing.
Ex : Her long, dark, glossy hair fascinated
me.
She gave me an antique ivory box.
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To sum up :
Use a listing comma in a list wherever
you could conceivably use the word and(or or) instead. Do not use a listing
comma anywhere else.
Put a listing comma before and or or only
if this is necessary to make your meaning
clear.
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The joining comma
The joining comma is used to join twocomplete sentences into a singlesentence, and it must be followed by a
suitable connecting word.
The connecting words which can be usedin this way are and, or, but, while andyet.
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Ex :
Ram has applied to join the army, and
Laxman is expected to do the same.You must hand in your essay by Friday, or
you will receive a mark of zero.
France has long been isolated in Europe,
but now she is beginning to find allies.
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Please note that most other connectingwords cannot be preceded by a joiningcomma.
For example, the connecting words
however, therefore, hence, consequently,nevertheless and thus cannot be usedafter a joining comma.
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Ex :
Saturn was long thought to be the onlyringed planet, however, this is now
known not to be the case.
Two members of the expedition were
too ill to continue, nevertheless theothers decided to press on.
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The gapping comma
The gapping comma is used to show thatone or more words have been left out
when the missing words would simply
repeat the words already used earlier inthe same sentence.
Ex : Some Norwegians wanted to basetheir national language on the speech of
the capital city; others, on the speech of
the rural countryside.
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The actual statement :
Some Norwegians wanted to base theirnational language on the speech of the
capital city; others wanted to base it on
the speech of the rural countryside.
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Bracketing commas
Bracketing commas (also called isolatingcommas) do a very different job from the
other three types.
These are the most frequently used type
of comma, and they cause moreproblems than the other types put
together.
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The rule :A pair of bracketing commas is used to
mark off a weak interruption of the
sentence - that is, an interruption which
does not disturb the smooth flow of the
sentence.Dash?
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Ex :
These findings, we would suggest, cast
doubt upon his hypothesis.
Darwin's Origin of Species, published in
1859, revolutionized biological thinking.We have been forced to conclude, after
careful study of the data, that the
proposed correlations, in spite of their
obvious appeal, do not stand up.
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Correct the following :Yet, outside that door, lay a whole new
world.
She groped for her cigarettes, and
finding them, hastily lit one.
Stanley was a determined, even ruthlessfigure.
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The Third Partition of Poland was thelast, and undoubtedly the most
humiliating act in the sorry decline of the
once-powerful kingdom.
The people of Cornwall, who dependupon fishing for their livelihood, are up
in arms over the new EC quotas.
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A restrictive (or defining )clause is
required to identify what is being talkedabout, and it never receives bracketing
commas.
A nonrestrictive (or non-defining)
relative clause is not required for
identification, but only adds furtherinformation, and it always receives
bracketing commas.
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Nonrestrictive clause :Margaret Thatcher, who hated trains,
refused to consider privatizing the
railways.
Noam Chomsky is the originator of the
innateness hypothesis, according towhich we are born already knowing what
human languages are like.
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Restrictive clause :
Anybody who still believes that Uri Geller
has strange powers should read James
Randi's book.
Because of problems with the test, all
the people who were told they were HIV-
negative are being recalled.
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To sum up :
Use a listing comma in a list where and
oror would be possible instead.
Use a joining comma before and, or, but,
yet orwhile followed by a complete
sentence.
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Use a gapping comma to show thatwords have been omitted instead of
repeated.
Use a pair of bracketing commas to set
off a weak interruption.
Th l
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The colon
The colon (:) is never preceded by awhite space; it always followed by a
single space in normal use, and it is
never, never, never followed by a hyphenor a dash.
The colon is used to indicate that whatfollows it is an explanation or elaboration
of what precedes it.
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Ex :Africa is facing a terrifying problem:
perpetual drought.
[Explains what the problem is.]
We found the place easily: yourdirections were perfect.
[Explains why we found it easily.]
Other uses
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Other uses :
when you cite the name of a book which
has both a title and a subtitle, you should
separate the two with a colon:
I recommend Chinnery's book OakFurniture: The British Tradition.
You should do this even though no colon
may appear on the cover or the title
page of the book itself.
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The colon is used in citing passages fromthe Bible:
The story of Menahem is found in II Kings
15:14-22.
The colon may be used in writing ratios:
Among students of French, womenoutnumber men by more than 4:1.
The semicolon
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The semicolon
The semicolon (;) is used to join two
complete sentences into a single written
sentence when all of the following conditions
are met:1. The two sentences are felt to be too closely
related to be separated by a full stop; 2.
There is no connecting word which wouldrequire a comma, such as and or but; 3. The
special conditions requiring a colon are
absent.
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Ex:It was the best of times. It was the worst
of times
It was the best of times, and it was the
worst of times.
It was the best of times; it was the worstof times.
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Summary of colons and semicolons: Use a colon to separate a general
statement from following specifics.
Use a semicolon to connect two
complete sentences not joined by and,or. but, yet or while.
Other oddities
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Other oddities
He gave him a good night kiss.This is a well thought out essay.
Her face turned an ugly brick red.
The earliest known hominid was Homo
habilis.
She recovered the sofa.
Error identification process
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Error identification process
1) S-V-N-P-N-G agreement.2) Correct use of the tense.
3) Correct use of adjective.
4) Position of adverb.
5) Preposition
6) Article
7) Usage
Vocabulary
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Vocabulary
You know what to do
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All the very
best of luck to
all of you!