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History and Comparison of Relational Database Management Systems
TechnoCircle HVB Information Services
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Contents
1. History of Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS)
2. Architecture of important RDBMS
3. Technology Comparison: Oracle, DB/2, Sybase, SQL-Server
4. Vendor Comparison: Beyond Technology
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1. History of Relational Database Management Systems
1.1 Origin and Foundation
1.2 History of Oracle
1.3 History of Sybase
1.4 History of SQL Server: Milestones
1.5 History of DB/2: Overview
1.6 Landmarks and Cross Relations
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2. Architecture Overview of important RDBMS
2.1 A Compilation of Generic Terms
2.2 Timeline of a Transaction
2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison
Oracle
DB/2
Sybase
SQL Server
MySQL
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3. Technology Comparison: Oracle, DB/2, Sybase,SQLServer
3.1 Server Security Model
3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging
3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency
3.4 High Availability Concepts
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4. Vendor Comparison: Beyond Technology 4.1Vendor Product Portfolios
Oracle and Sybase
4.2 Platform Support / Market Shares
4.3 Cost Comparison
SQL Server 2005
Oracle 10g
DB/2 8.2
4.4 Total Cost of Administration
SQL Server vs. Oracle
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 1/11
Q.: Why is the database industry dominated by US companies like
IBM
Oracle Corp
Sybase, Inc.
Teradata Corp. (NCR Corp.)
Microsoft?
A.: There was in the beginning a strong competition between industry and academic research.
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 2/11 19th century: Us Gov. needed reports from large datasets
1890: Herman Hollerith: first automatic information processing equipment => punchcard machine => census 1890 / 1900 were processed
1911: IBM founded (Hollerith et.al.)
control of industry production, tax calculation not possible without automatic data processing
1935: Social Security Act: records of 26 mio individuals, special equipment by IBM
Bureau of Census: bought UNIVAC I
1959: 200 computers in the Pentagon
1960s: remove hardware constraints from programmers, term: "database"
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 3/11
Standardization efforts
computing => commercial market
techniques for: data access, data quality, security, control
1960: US DoD: Conference on Data system Languages (Codasyl)
=> Cobol (Common Business Oriented Language)
tapes => hard disks (serial => random)
1961: Charles Bachmann (GE): IDS (Integrated Data Store System)
1960s: Database Task Force Group (Codasyl): Navigation with computer languages in databases
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 4/11
1968: IBM: IMS (partly developed during the Apollo project)
1971: formal standard: Codasyl approach to database management
hierarchical database model
network database model
=> navigational databases (Bachmann 1973: The programmer as navigator)
adoption in mainframe market outside IBM (Eckert-Mauchley Comp. Corp., Honeywell, Inc., Siemens AG, DEC, Prime Comp. Corp.)
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 5/11
Edgar F. Codd (IBM) was dissatisfied ("taking the old line view, that the burden of finding information should be placed on users …")
landmark paper: "A relational Model of Data for large shared Data Banks" (see note)
Indepence of Data from the Hardware- and Storage Implementation
automatic navigation to the data set (high level nonprocedural language for data access (Record => Set)
pointers => keys (primary, secondary)
theoretical proposal, no practical design or implementation
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 6/11
impact was not fully recognized (even by Codd)
IBM: IMS was preferred (sole strategic) product (invest, infrastructure, success, profit)
relational model had to survive in and outside IBM
Codd initiated public debate with Bachmann (Codasyl)
1970s: two projects for development of relational products:
Army, Air Force, Navy, NSF, UC Berkeley funded: Ingres IBM funded: System R (1973)
begin of competition!
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 7/11
System R: (see notes)
high level, non navigational data independent user interface
1974/75 prototype
1978/79 fully functional, multi user version => SQL
Ingres (Interactive Graphics and Retrieval System)
handling of geographic data
1974: Prototype, own query language: QUEL
several revisions, testing through user community => feedback
rapid spread because of DEC hardware at universities
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 8/11Diffusion and Commercialization (Ingres)
Source free available (1000 copies in circulation)
Stonebraker founded Ingres Corp. (1994 bought by CA)
Robert Epstein (Chief Programmer) => Britton-Lee, Inc. => Sybase, Inc.
(ideas from Ingres, Public Agencies as first customers)
Held/Youseffi => Tandem Comp., Inc. (predecessor of Nonstop SQL)
Held: up to 1998 Sen. Vice Pres. Engineering, Oracle
Hawthorn/Ubell => Britton-Lee => cofounder of Illustra Inform. Technol.,
=> Informix …
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 9/11
Epstein: "What came from Ingres was the experience of having built a prototype … to say what parts need to be done differently."
hard competition between Ingres and System R
System R: 15 people
Ingres 1973-1979: 30 people (never more than six)
SQL persisted (would have been possible years earlier)
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 10/11
Larry Ellison (IBM): read publications of the System R group => Oracle
sold SQL compatible product before IBM
1980:
IBM developed SQL/DS => mainframe market
second generation of relational systems
Codd: ACM Turing Award
1982: End of Ingres Project
1985: continues in Postgres (UC Berkeley), object relational
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 11/11
Lessons learned
strong governmental influence at dev. of rel. systems (tasks like census)
funding speeds up commercialization (competition System R <=> Ingres)
free publication of research results => technology transfer in community
scientists from industry laboratories founded their own enterprises
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1.2 History of Oracle (*) 1/16
SDL => RSI (Relational Software, Inc.)
market pressure: fast avail., cheap product,
- PDP-11 (widely used VAX platform), subqueries, joins, no transact.
- Oracle 2.3 : complete RDBMS
-RSI => Oracle Corp.
1979
1981
VAX Factor
1983
- Market Demand: RDBMS
- Larry Ellison (Marketing) , Bob Miner, Ed Oates (Code): Software Development Laboratories (SDL) => Implementation of a RDBMS => Oracle 2 (see notes)
- less than one year development time
1975-1979
1st Rel.: Oracle 2
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1.2 History of Oracle 2/16
- hard competition in database industry, begin of tool development
(see excursus 2)
- Oracle Marketing (see excursus 3)
- many systems only remakes of old hierarchical systems
- Codd: 12 Rules for RDBMS (Appendix A)
1985
- Rewrite in C (White Smith C)
- many basic design decisions (influence up to date) (see excurs 1)
- not very stable !
1983
Oracle 3
Portability
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1.2 History of Oracle 3/16
- encrypted passwords
- subqueries
- precompiler (Cobol, Fortran IV, PL/1)
SQL embedding in 3GL programs
1985/86
Vers. 5.1
- rewrite in K&R C
- Portability on almost any platform (flex. FS and IPC facility) (Note)
(see Excursus 4)
- Views, Named Accounts
- Read Consistency
1984
Version 4
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1.2 History of Oracle 4/16
bad quality until Version 8
OCI was the choice (Library Calls for exec SQL in 3GL prg.)
- SQL*Net:
C/S Arch.
system, platform independence
DB Server also Client (Database Link)
Query Only Distrib. Database Support (see note)
Gateways for other DB engines
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1.2 History of Oracle 5/16
- standardized applications were needed
- Founding of Applications Division at Oracle (Business Mgmt. Software)
1987
growing spread of PCs => mismatch
Server: DB + Appl., PC: only Terminal + Interface
Two Task Arch. IPC => TCP/IP was possible (see note)
better networks => more effic. implementation of SQL*Net
n-Tier architectures were possible
- first tries with clusters
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1.2 History of Oracle 6/16
- true row level locking (additional charge) (see notes)
- Online Backups
- Shared Pool (minimization of parsing overhead)
1988 - 1991
Version 6
- Oracle: good for rapid dev . of OLTP Applications
- no scaling, few sessions
- no precompiled queries, Parsing Overhead
- RBO: good for OLTP on well normalized schemas
bad for DSS
- growing number of users aggravated performance problems
late 1980s
Problems:
Perf./
Scaling
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1.2 History of Oracle 7/16
- change from block level logging to field level logging
- keep rollback segments in the database
recovery of undo structures via redologs (see notes)
Read Consistency
- huge memory consumption when many clients => MTS (see notes)
- no Upgrade Path from Oracle 5 to Oracle 6
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1.2 History of Oracle 8/16
- Oracle had to rescue non-tech educated users from their errors
- data integrity: declarative constraints (up to now only unique keys and NULL-value checking)
- PL/SQL storage in database (procedural language + SQL)
- triggers: implement data rules (insert into a => update b)
- stored procedures: implement process rules
- =>radical changes in application design
- emergence of standard software (database independent design)
- role concept
1992
Version 7
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1.2 History of Oracle 9/16
- Business Applications in Client/Server Mode
- Port to Windows
- Distributed Transactions (2PC)
- Parallel Query => Data WareHouse
- porting of all Tools to Windows
- graphical EM: not usable (see note)
1993
1994
1995
1996
- Cost Based Optimizer: not perfect
- Rule Based Optimizer since Version 6 no longer improved
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1.2 History of Oracle 10/16- LOBs (storage of unstructured data)
- Partitions (ease of administration)
- Materialized Views (Benchmark Opportunism) (see note)
- Function Based Indexes (error tolerance)
- Bitmapped Indexes: Performance Boost for DWH
- Oracle Discoverer: Ad Hoc End User Query Tool for BI
- Support for object oriented Developing, new datatypes
- completely revised development suite (native Java):
Jdeveloper
- Oracle Application Server 4.0 (middle tier)
1997
Version 8
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1.2 History of Oracle 11/16
- native Java Runtime Environment
- SQLJ (SQL in Java Code)
- interMedia: managing of Multimedia Content
- Repository for Designer (Modeling and Application Generation Tool)
- move away from C/S Paradigma: Oracle Applications run in browser
- Port of RDBMS and Application Server to Linux
- RAW Iron Initiative: Flop (Pack. of Server+cust. OS+Oracle Env.)
- XML Support
1998
Version 8i
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1.2 History of Oracle 12/16
- Oracle WebDB (manage DB driven Websites) => Oracle Portal
- Applications 11 => Applications 11i
- Internet Filesystem (iFS) (see note)
- Oracle AS9i Portal Technology (Content Mgmt, Portlets, Deployment Options)
- OAS9i Wireless
- Webcache Technology (Part of OAS)
- Preview Cache Fusion (RAC)
1999
2000
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1.2 History of Oracle 13/16
- DEC could not enter the mainframe market
- research in
SMP- architectures (cache coherency)
cluster architectures (Shared Disks)
also with Oracle Shared Instances (Instance:DB = N:1)
(see note)
- Real Application Cluster (Oracle Cluster Technology)
2001
Version 9i
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1.2 History of Oracle 14/16
-development was always customer driven, but now:
-enormous improvements in manageability and self-tuning of the database (see note)
- Automatic Workload Repository (AWR)
- Automatic Database Diagnostic Monitor (ADDM)
- Automatic Space Managament (ASM)
2004
Oracle 10g
- native XML Support
- Jdeveloper: J2EE- and XML-Support
- Table Compression (Block Level) (Index Compr. in Vers. 5 and 8)
- Flashback Query
- OEM becomes usable (scalable architecture, repository)
2001
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1.2 History of Oracle 15/16
- Selftuning must be licensed!
- Selftuning is valuable for small businesses without dedicated DBAs
- Oracle can afford not to satisfy small customers at moderate prices and let big customers pay extra charges
- Product Quality:
new features often half hearted and error prone (see note)
initial release of each version is unusable in the real world
this is in 10g different
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1.2 History of Oracle - Summary 16/16
Manageability, SelftuningOracle 102004Cluster technology comes of ageOracle 92001PartitioningOracle 81997Data IntegrityOracle 71992ScalabilityOracle 61988Client/ServerOracle 51986Transactional Integrity, Read ConsistencyOracle 41984PortabilityOracle 31983first commercially available RDBMSOracle 21979
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1.3 History of Sybase 1/13
- SQL Server (Beta) on VMS
- 100 employees, 150 customers
1987
- Robert Epstein (UCB), Mark Hoffmann (Univ. of Arizona) => Robert Epstein Consulting => Sybase (System+Database)
- Sun: major Partner
- SQL Server V1.0 (Beta) and DB Library on SunOS:
Client/Server Database for OLTP (Appl. Logic in Server)
pioneer with Stored Procedures, Triggers
1984
1986
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1.3 History of Sybase 2/13
- Sybase SQL Server 4.0: text, image datatypes
- Vision of "Total Solution C/S Company" : aquis. of SQL Solutions
- Integration of IBM MVS mainframes in "C/S World"
1990
- Open Client / Open Server: API for Comm. between Clients and different Data Sources
1989
- second major Partner: Microsoft
- SQL Server for OS/2 (joint dev. of Sybase, Microsoft, Aston-Tate)
- Version 3.0: Stored Procedures, Triggers, CBO
first market Version
- Sybase: Unix/VMS, Microsoft: Windows, OS/2
1988
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1.3 History of Sybase 3/13
- Version 4.8: SMP support (engines), union, new datatypes
- Version 4.9: multibyte Character Sets
- Version 4.9.1: extraordinary stable
- Version 4.9.2: log-based Replication
1992
- Version 4.2: international language support
- enters Chinese Market
- Powersoft introduces Powerbuilder 1.0
1991
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1.3 History of Sybase 4/13
-Backup Server, Monitor Server,
- RI Constraints, Cursors, Identity Columns, system roles
- thresholds, Auditing, encrypt. Password Storing, sybsystemprocs DB
- CT Library replaces DB Library (C/S API)
but: severe Installation- and Stabilityproblems
- Replication Server (Version 10): Open Replication Technology allows replication regardless of Database
- Vertical Industry Solutions Group
Healthcare, Financial Services, Oil & Gas, Telecom
1993
System X
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1.3 History of Sybase 5/13
- Merger with Powersoft (leading supplier of developm. tools for 4GL Applications)
- with Powersoft came Watson: small RDBMS and Enterprise Synchronization Solution on sev. OS for mobile and embedded products
SQL Anywhere Studio => Adaptive Server Anwhere
undisputed mobile DB market leader
1995
- Microsoft quits Partnership (reseller for OS/2 and Win NT)
gets copy of Sourcecode Version 4.2 Sybase SQL Server
Microsoft SQL Server now an independent Product
- both comp.: SQL Server and Transact SQL (T-SQL) (Trademark still today owned by Sybase)
1994
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1.3 History of Sybase 6/13
- dominant provider in mobile DBMS Market
ASA: market share 22% (2000: 68%)
- Strategy: Focus on OLTP, DataWarehouses, Internet Applications
1996
- Version 11.0:
Improvement in Quality
Table Partitioning
Memory Partitioning (named Caches)
ANSI Transaction Isol. Level 0 (Dirty Reads)
sp_sysmon, online database, Server config File
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1.3 History of Sybase 7/13
- Version 11.5:
Sybase SQL Server renamed to Adaptive Server Enterprise
case expression
CIS (Proxy tables)
XP Server, Historical Server
dbcc checkstorage, user defined Roles
Query Parallelism, Resource Limits
log. Process Manager
- Jaguar: 1999 EA-Server (Web Appl. Server for >30 DB)
1997
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1.3 History of Sybase 8/13
- Version 11.9 "EARL" (Eagerly Awaited Row Level Locking)
DOL on row level / page level (see note)
lock timeouts , lock table statement
standby_access database, reorg command
ANSI Isol. Level 2
license monitor
Optimizer Statistics Redesign
- 11.0.3.3 : Port to Linux
1998
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1.3 History of Sybase 9/13
- ASA for Handhelds
- Aqu. Home Financial networks, Comb. with Financ. Server Unit
=> own subsidiary: Finacial Fusion (leader in fin. Services)
2000: 68% Wall Street comp., 95% Fortune 100 with Sybase
market share in Financial Sector: 58%
- Aqu. of Data Warehose Network => Sybase Industry Warehose Studio
- ASE Version 12.0:
exec immediate, identity_gap, license manager
abstract query plans, alter table, quiesce database
optional licensable features: Java in ASE, Adv. Sec., DTM, HA
1999
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1.3 History of Sybase 10/13
- ASE 12.5
union views, login trigger, dynamic server reconfiguration
larger page sizes, XQL-Parser
ddlgen
new licensable Options:
LDAP, Filesystem access with Proxy Tables
builtin Jave Enterprise Beans Server
- Customer Base: 90% of Investment Banks, 60% dep. banks, NYSE
2001
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1.3 History of Sybase 11/13
- Version 12.5.0.3:
MDA monitoring Tables
multiple Temp DBs
statistics sampling
- Version 12.5.1: job scheduler, dynamic data caches
2003
- Version 12.5.0.1:
ASE Replicator (lightweight Data Replication)
sybmigrate
free Developer Edition
- Version 12.5.0.2: Port on MacOS
2002
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1.3 History of Sybase 12/13
- revised partitioning support
-computed columns, function indexes
- Adv. System Metrics, auto update Statistics
- native conn. to MQSeries
- completely rewritten CBO
- Unicode Data Support
- native Encryption in the Database
- selective load
2005
ASE 15
Version 12.5.3: cross platform transfer with dump/load
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1.3 History of Sybase – Summary 13/13
Sybase iAnywhere: Marketleader in Mobile Devices2004
Sybase IQ: worldwide largest DWH at Nielson Media2003
IT Infrastructure Standard in Wall Street => Dominance Fin.Service Market1995
early activities in China: today market leader1991
Open Replication Technology – Database independent1990
SQL Server: 1sc C/S Database for distr. Appl. and mobile Dev. Mgmt.1998
Foundation1984
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1.4 History of SQL Server – Milestones 1/2
Port of SQL Server to Win NT (MS and Sybase)1992
Microsoft SQL Server 4.2 for 16-Bit OS/2 1.3 is released 1992
Microsoft and IBM quit joint Deveopment of OS/21991
SQL Server 1.1 supports Win 3.0 Clients
Aston – Tate quits Development of SQWL Server
1990
SQL Server 1.0 for OS/21989
Microsoft, Sybase and Aston-Tate port SQL Server to OS/21988
Sybase launches SQL Server for Unix1987
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1.4 History of SQL Server – Milestones 2/2
SQL Server 20052005
SQL Server 20002000
SQL Server 7.01998
Quit of joint Development of SQL Server by sybase and Microsoft.
Sybase develops Unix variant, Microsoft Windows variant separately.
1994
Microsoft and Sybase release SQL Server 4.2 for Windows NT1993
Win NT 3.1 is released1993
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1.5 Overview DB/2 History: Foundations 1/2
- IBM Implementation of the relational Model
- Row Level Locking
- Rel. Model for Distributed Environments
- Optimization Strategies in the Relational Model
- Data Management in diverse Systems
System/R Project
Project Aris
Rstar Project
Starburst Project
Garlic Project
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1.5 Overview DB/2 History: Milestones 2/2
DB/2 for Linux1999
DB/2 for Windows1995DB/2 for HP-UX, Solaris1994DB/2 for AIX1993SQL/400 for AS/4001988Database Manager in OS/2 (first on distr. Systems)1987DB/2 (Database 2 on VMS)1983SQL/DS (Mainframe VM, VSE)1982
Database Integration in System/38
(first Implementation of System / R)
1980
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1.6 Landmarks and Cross Relations 1/3
DB/2 for MVS1983
Oracle Corp. 1st comm. Database (SQL)
1979
Larry Ellison: Oracle1977
System/R: RDBMS prototype1976
Codd: concept RDBMS1970
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1.6 Landmarks and Cross Relations 2/3
MS SQL 7.0ASE 11.9.2Oracle 81998
MS SQL 6.5ASE 11.51996
MS SQL 6.0ASE 11.0
Merger Sybase Powersoft
DB/2 for Windows
1995
End of PartnershipDB/2 for AIX1993
MS SQL 1.01989
Sybase – Microsoft Partnership
Oracle 61988
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1.6 Landmarks and Cross Relations 3/3
Replication Server 15
MS SQL 2005ASE 152005
Oracle 10g2004
Sybase IQ2003
Oracle 9i2001
MS SQL 2000ASE 12.0Oracle 8iDB/2 V72000
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2. Architecture Overview of important RDBMS
2.1 A Compilation of Generic Terms
2.2 Timeline of a Transaction
2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison
Oracle
DB/2
Sybase
SQL Server
MySQL
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2.1 Generic Terms: Logical Components 1/10
IndexIndexIndexIndexIndexIndexIndexspecial purpose table for quicker lookups
TableTableTableTableTableTableTableRelation (Grouping of related information, Figure B)
DatabaseDatabaseDatabaseDatabaseDatabaseDatabaseDatabasePersistent Objects on Storage (Figure A)
ServerServerInstanceServerInstanceInstanceInstance
Background Processes and Memory Structures
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQLInformixDB/2Generic
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Gen. Terms: 2/10
Figure A
Graphical Representation
of a Database
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2.1 Generic Terms - Logical Components 3/10
RowRowRowRowRowRowRow = Tuple
Collection of related Attributes (Figure B)
ObjectObjectObjectObjectObjectObjectObjectany type of table
varchar (max)
varbinary (max)
image data type
BLOB, CLOB
(smart) BLOBspace
BLOB
space
Data which do not fit in a "normal" table
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQLInformixDB/2Generic
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Gen.Terms 4/10
Figure B
Table Layout
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2.1 Generic Terms: Logical Components 5/10
CheckpointCheckpointCheckpointCheckpointCheckpointCheckpointCheckpoint
Point in Time where everything is on DiskTransactionTransactionTransactionTransactionTransactionTransactionTransaction
Activity, which changes one or more Attributes
AttributeAttributeAttributeAttributeAttributeAttributeAttribute
Basic Element of Data within a Table (Figure B)
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQLInformixDB/2Generic
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2.1 Generic Terms: Physical Components 6/10
Extent (3)ExtentExtentN/AExtent (2)ExtentExtentlogically contiguous number of pages (1)
Datafile/
Filegroup
DeviceDatafileDatafileChunkContainerDatafileStructure for storing data (raw or cooked files)
PagePageBlockPagePagePage/Block
Basic Building Block
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQL
(Inno)
InformixDB/2Generic
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2.1 Generic Terms: Physical Components 7/10
N/ASegmentTablespaceDbspaceTablespace (3)
Dataspace
structures where tables go in (4, Figure C)
N/ADisk fragment
SegmentTablespaceTblspaceObjectTablespace
Space occupied by a single Table (Figure C)
Allocation Unit
AllocationUnit (2)
N/AN/ATblspaceN/AFragment
collection of logically contiguous extents (1)
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQLInformixDB/2Generic
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Terms: 8/10
Figure C
Tablespace Layout
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2.1 Generic Terms: Physical Components 9/10
Transaction Log
Transaction Log
Undo Segments
Undo (2)
Segments
Physical Log
LogfilesRollback Log
storage place of the "before image" of a transaction
master database
master database
control fileInformation Schema (1)
sysmaster onconfig file
rootdb
control files
Master Database
Inventory of all database parts
PartitionPartitionPartitionN/AFragmentPartitionPartition
structure for distributing a table across multiple dataspaces
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQLInformixDB/2Generic
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2.1 Generic Terms: Physical Components 10/10
Transaction Log
Transaction Log
RedologBinary Log
Logical Log
LogfilesTransaction Log
log place for transaction and page changes
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQLInformixDB/2Generic
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2.2 General Transaction Properties - ACID -
After commit the transaction is permanent.
Durability
The effects of a transaction may not be visible to other transactions until the transaction is committed.
Isolation
Database is brought from one consistent state to another
Consistency
either all of a transaction happens or nothing
Atomicity
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2.2 General Transaction Properties - Timeline -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - Oracle -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - Oracle -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - DB2/UDB -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - DB2/UDB -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - DB2/UDB -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - DB2/UDB -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - Sybase ASE -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - SQL Server -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - MySQL -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - MySQL -
The MySQL Pluggable Storage Engines
- MyISAM
Table Locking
no Transactions
- InnoDB
ACID compatible
row level locking
Tablespaces
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - MySQL -
default Isolation Level: Read Committed
multi version concurrency control (readers do not block writers and vice versa)
- Archive
compressed data -> ILM
- Federated
links to tables on another server
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3. Technology Comparison: Oracle, DB/2,Sybase,SQLServer 3.1 Server Security Model
3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging
3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency
3.4 High Availability Concepts
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3.1 Server Security Model 1/5
Login
DB User
Login
DB User
N / A
User
- right to access the database server
- security domain and
Quotas
Privileges
Resource Limits
- Login Account
- DB User
yesnew in 2005-rudimentary- collection of logical structures of data
- classification of objects (namespace)
Schema
DB/2SQL ServerSybaseOracleDefinitionFeature
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3.1 Server Security Model 2/5
noyesyesyesnamed (protected) group of related privileges
-Roles
database pr.
object pr.
statement lev. pr.
object pr.
system pr.
object pr.
system pr.
object pr.
right to run a particular SQL statement or to access a database object
-Privileges
(Authorization)
via Windows Groups
up to 11.5N/A- collection of similar users
- Groups
DB/2SQL ServerSybaseOracleDefinitionFeature
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3.1 Server Security Model 3/5
Authentication: Identity Verification
- Operating System (externally)
- Network (globally)
3rd Party (DCE, Kerberos)
PKI: SSL, OCI, Wallets, LDAP
Remote: Radius
- Database: (password)
- Multitier: (with OCI)
Oracle
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3.1 Server Security Model 4/5
Authentication: Identity Verification
- Windows Authentication (Integrated Security, NTLM or Kerberos)
- SQL Server Authentication
SQL Server
- ASE (password)
- external:
Kerberos (Network)
LDAP
PAM (OS)
Sybase
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3.1 Server Security Model 5/5
Authentication: Identity Verification
- Server: comparison with OS
- Server_ Encrypt
- Client: comparison to valid credentials on client node
- Kerberos
- Krb_Server_Encrypt
- add. Security Plugins may be installed (LDAP, PKI, …)
DB/2
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Oracle 1/6Logical Backup
- import/export (proprietary format), impdp/expdp (XML)
- SQL Loader for large quantities of data
Physical Backup
- noarchivelog Mode: redologs will be overwritten in a circular fashion
no PITR possible
protection from instance failure
most recent changes available only for crash or instance recovery
- archivelog mode: redologs will be duplicated to an archivelog
complete PITR from instance or media failure possible
all changes are permanently saved in archivelogs
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Oracle 2/6
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Oracle 3/6
- Offline Backup: copy of DB files while Database ist down
- Online Backup:
User Managed B&R:
begin .. end backup + OS commands
recover Statement
RMAN + (opt. Recovery Catalog) + API for Integration with 3rd – Party Media Manager
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Oracle 4/6
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Oracle 5/6
x
(full, user, table) - Level
-xautomatic Backup
x-xcorrupt Block Detection
--xincremental Backup
x (Undo required for consistency)
x (begin .. end Backup)
x (no begin .. end Backup)
open DB Backup
-xxclosed DB Backup
ExportUser managedRMANFeature
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Oracle 6/6
x-xOS independent Language
-xxBackup init-File, Password – File
xxx (API)Backup to Media Manager
--xBackup catalog
ExportUser managedRMANFeature
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Sybase 1/3
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Sybase 2/3
Physical Backup
- same Logging Model as SQL Server (per database one Transaction Log)
- dump database (only whole Database)
- dump transaction (thereafter Log will be truncated)
- threshold procedures have to be implemented
- database options may be set:
abort transaction on log full
truncate log on checkpoint (removal of committed transactions)
- Media Manager Integration through SQL*Backtrack (BMC) or Veritas Netbackup (Veritas)
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Sybase 3/3
Logical Backups
- bcp (for data, only at object level)
- ddlgen (for structures)
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: SQL Server 1/3
Physical Backup
- auto growing tran log
may be defined otherwise
stored threshold procedure
- full backup (backup database)
(local tape or disk)
- full differential backup
(backup database with
differential) based on full backup
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: SQL Server 2/3
- partial Backup: Backup of write intensive Portions of a Database
- partial differential backup
- File backup, Filegroup Backup: backup of a Database at the File Level
(faster Recovery)
- transaction Log backup: default autogrow enabled (backup log)
(after Backup it will be truncated)
- API for split Mirror hot Backup available (with suspension of Database Activity)
- no integration of media management software
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: SQL Server 3/3
Logical Backup
- bcp
- DTS (Data Transformation Service)
- new in 2005: SSIS (SQL Server Integration Service) – an ETL Tool
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: DB/2 1/4
Logical Backup
- import/export (sql select in various formats)
Formats:
IXF (Integration Exchange Format) (see note)
WSF (Worksheet File Format) (IBM spreadsheet format)
DEL Delimited ASCII (seq. file with row and column del.)
ASC Undelimited ASCII (seq. file with row del.)
- load for large quantities of data
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: DB/2 2/4Logging
- circular Logging
Default
only logs with current transaction data (active logs) are kept
only full and Offline Backups ("Version Recovery")
protects from Instance Failure
- retained Logging
PITR possible
protects from Instance and Media Failure
Log Archiving via Userexit (call of external Program: diskcopy, TSM, tape, any XBSA compliant utility)
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: DB/2 3/4
Backup per Database
Log Files
Transaction Recording
Recovery History File
Summary of Backup Information
to determine Recovery Options
Tablespace Change History File
determine Log Files for Recovery
of a Tablespace
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: DB/2 4/4
Physical Backup
- retained (archive) Logging:
db2 backup <database> (Program)
db2backup (API)
incremental Backups (cumulative, delta) possible
split Mirror Backups
-circular Logging:
OS Backup only offline (Integration with TSM possible)
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 1/27
Fundamental problem of Multi User Databases
How to ensure Data Consistency and maintain Concurrency at the same Time?
RDBMS handle this differently:
- Oracle: Multi Versioning
- Non Oracle (Sybase, DB/2, SQL Server): Read locking
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 2/27
Multi Versioning
- read consistent queries: consistent results with respect to a given point in time
- non – blocking queries: queries are never blocked by writers of data
- Oracle is able to simultaneously materialize multiple versions of the data.
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 3/27
Demo Example
- cursor does not fetch data
- delete command places data in
undo segment
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 4/27
Transaction Isolation Levels
Purpose of a Transaction: Take DB from one consistent State to another.
In a Multiuser DB different Transactions are carried out simultaneously.
The Sensitivity of a Transaction to Changes made by others is determined via Transaction Isolation Levels.
Isolation Levels are defined in Terms of Phenomena.
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 5/27
query at times t1,t2 (t2 > t1) may yield additional rows at t2
Phantom Read
read of the same row at times t1,t2 may yield different results
Nonrepeatable Read
read of uncommitted data
no data integrity
Dirty Read
ExplanationPhenomenon
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 6/27
Transaction Isolation Levels (x: permitted, -: not permitted)
---L3: Serializable
x--L2: Repeatable Read
xx-L1: Read Committed
xxxL0: Read Uncommitted
Phantom ReadNonrepeatable ReadDirty ReadIsolation Level
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 7/27
Locking and Default Isolation Levels (Non-Oracle)
- all locks are stored in memory
- locking schemes: row (page), table
- Concurrency and Overhead grow from table level locking to row level locking.
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 8/27
- row Level Locking
- Lock Escalation may occur.
- Default Isolation Level: L1
DB/2
- Allpages Locking (data + index)
- Datapages Locking
- Datarows Locking
- Lock Escalation may occur (page => table, row => table)
- shared (for read) and exclusive locks
- Default Isolation Level: L1
Sybase
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 9/27
- Row Level Locking
- Lock Escalation may occur (Row => Table)
- Default Isolation Level : L1
- new in 2005: Snapshot Isolation (attempt to mimic Oracle Behaviour, uses tempdb)
SQL Server
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 10/27Locking and Isolation Levels (Oracle)
- Locks are stored in Data Blocks (no lock escalation).
- Locks only when data are modified.
- Oracle always uses non-blocking reads (Multi Versioning).
- Writes do not block Reads and vice versa.- L1 and L3 are supported (L1 default)
- Intention of SQL Standard:
L0: to mimic non blocking reads
L1: does not give consistent results
L2: to guarantee read consistent results
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 11/27
However, in Oracle:
- L1: because all queries are read consistent, it is equivalent to L2
- L0: The "spirit" of L0 is in Oracle always achieved (all reads are non – blocking)
- Additionally L4 (Read Only) Level is supported (L3 + no data modification).
Transaction sees only changes, that were committed when transaction began, but IUD are not allowed.
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 12/27Example: Take a look at a Transaction in all Isolation Levels and compare
Oracle- and Non-Oracle Behaviour.
840.25840.25Sum
500.00100.009874
0.000.007813
240.25240.254562
100.00500.001231
Balance (t8)Balance (t1)Account (PK)
Table AccountsRow
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 13/27
2 simultaneous Sessions:
Session 1: select sum(balance) from account;
Session 2: transfer 400.00 from Account 123 to Account 798.
Caption:
S: Session O: Oracle like Database
R: Row NO: Non – Oracle like Database
L: Level
t: time
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 14/27
Read Uncommitted (L0) (Oracle does not support L0, so L1 is used.)
R3=0.00 Sum=740.25R3=0.00 Sum=740.25T4
Update R1, excl. Lock on R1
set R1=100.00
T3
R2=240.25 Sum=740.25R2=240.25 Sum=740.25T2
R1=500.00 Sum=500.00R1=500.00, Sum=500,00T1
TransferS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L0Time
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 15/27
Sum=840.25S=1240.25 Wrong!T8
CommitT7
R4=100.00 Sum=840.25
(see Note)
R4=500.00 Sum=1240.25T6
Update R4, excl. Lock on R4
set R4=500.00
T5
TransferS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L0Time
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 16/27
Read Committed (L1)
R3=0.00 Sum=740.25R3=0.00 Sum=740.25T4
Update R1; excl. Lock
Set R1=100.00
T3
R2=240.25 Sum=740.25R2=240.25 Sum=740.25T2
R1=500.00 Sum=500.00R1=500.00 Sum=500.00T1
TransferS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L1Time
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The same Isolation Levels yield different answers!
-R4=500.00 S=1240.25
Wrong!
T8
Commit;T7
R4=100.00 (from Undo)
Sum=840.25
try to read R4 (is locked)
S1 blocks, Query stops
T6
Update R4; excl. Lock
R4=500.00
T5
TransferS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L1Time
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 18/27Repeatable Read (L2) (not supported/needed in Oracle, uses L1)
try to update R1 (is locked) Update suspended
Transfer NO
R3=0.00 Sum=740.25
R3=0.00 Sum=740.25
Lock R3
T4
Update R1; excl. Lock
Set R1=100.00
T3
R2=240.25 Sum=740.25
R2=240.25 Sum=740.25
Lock R2
T2
R1=500.00 Sum=500.00
R1=500.00 Sum=500.00
Lock R1
T1
Transfer OS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L2Time
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 19/27
Transfer NO
Commit;
release all Locks
T8
Commit;T7
R4=100.00 (from Undo) Sum=840.25
R4=100.00 Sum=840.25
Lock R4
T6
Update R4; excl. Lock
Set R4=500.00
T5
Transfer OS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L2Time
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 20/27
Commit;
Update R4
Set R4=500.00
excl. Lock
Update R1
Set R1=100.00
excl. Lock
Transfer NO
T11
T10
T9
Transfer OS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L2Time
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 21/27
Remarks
- Correct Answer also in NO.
- Cost: Transactions had to be executed sequentially!
- Readers of Data will block Writers of Data!
- Spurious Errors still possible: see next Page.
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 22/27
Classical Deadlock
One Transaction will be chosen as victim, killed and rolled back.
try to read R4 (is locked)
Query suspended
T6
try to Update R1 (is locked)
Update suspended
T5
R3=0.00 Sum=740.25T4
Update R4=50.00; excl. LockT3
R2=240.25 Sum=740.25 Lock R2T2
R1=500.00 Sum=500.00 Lock R1T1
Transfer 50.00 from R4 to R1S1 (NO) L2Time
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 23/27
Porting Issues
In DB with shared Read Locks and L2: Lost Updates cannot happen.
But:
In DB without shared Read Locks: Lost Update Problem!
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 24/27
Lost Update Problem (Database without Shared Read Locks)
T1: S1: read R1
T2: S2: read R1
T3: S1: Update R1; Commit;
T4: S2: Update R1; Commit:⇒ Result from T3 is lost!
How to avoid: Manual Locking (optimistic or pessimistic)
optimistic Locking: defer locking as late as possible (Application Design!)
pessimistic Locking: select for update (lock for write, not for read)
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 25/27
Serializable (L3)
Each Transaction appears to be the only Transaction in the Database at a given Time.
Oracle:
- L3 extends the Read Consistency from Statement to Transaction Level (using Undo).
- Price: ORA-8177: can't serialize access for this transaction
(when updating data which has changed since the begin of the transaction)
Non Oracle:
- locking may yield Deadlocks, Blocking, …
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 26/27
Read Only (L4) (Oracle Only)
- as L3 but no modifications allowed => no ORA-8177
- in other systems: L2
- because in Oracle without Locking: ORA-1555 might happen.
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 27/27
nnnnnnO
ynnyyyNO
L3
ynnyyyNOL2
nn (*)nnnnO
yyynnyNO
L1
yyynnnNOL0
Lock Escalation
or Limits
Lost
Updates
Incorrect
Query
Results
Deadlock
Sensitive
Reads
Reads
Block Writes
Writes
Block
Reads
Implem
entation
Isolation
Level
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 1/14
- Real Application Cluster
- Flashback
- Data Guard
- Replication (Streams)
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 2/14
(a) Real Application Cluster (RAC) and Oracle ClusterWare (OCW)
High Availability and horicontal Scaling
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 3/14
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 4/14
Oracle Clusterware
- comes from Tru-Cluster (DEC)
- OCW + ASM:
Ressource Monitoring
Ressource Management
Cluster Control
Failover APIs
Cluster Membership
LVM
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 5/14
OCW:
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 6/14
additional features of OCW:
- Cluster for any Application
- Loadbalancing, Workloadmanagement
- Fast Application Notification (FAN) for subscribed Clients
- Transparent Application Failover (TAF)
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 7/14(b) Flashback – Protection from logical Errors
set whole Database back in TimeFlashback Database
restore Database Objects after dropping themFlashback Drop
set Database Objects back in TimeFlashback Table
generate Undo-SQL for historical OperationsFlashback Transaction Query
to reproduce historical Operations on Database Objects Flashback Versions Query
PurposeFeature
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 8/14(c) DataGuard (Standby Database)
- User Errors, logical Corruptions
- Disaster Recovery
- Fast Site and Database Failover
- Planned Switchover for Maintenance
- Divergence for Reporting and Testing (Flashback)
- taking Backups / Load !
- Read Only Capability
Physical Standby Database
Purpose /Protection fromType of Standby Database
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 9/14
- Disaster Recovery
- Read/Write Capability for normal Operation
- additional Objects may be created for Reporting
- Rolling Database Upgrades
Logical Standby Database
Purpose /Protection fromType of Standby Database
Maximum Availability Architecture: RAC + DataGuard
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 10/14
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 11/14
(d) Replication: Oracle Streams
- highest Degree of Flexibility
- highly customizable
- heterogeneous Platform Support
- high Configuration and Administration Flexibility
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 12/14
1. capture Messages at a Source Database
2. stage Messages in Queues
3. propagate Messages to another Queue
4. consume Messages
5. apply Changes in Destination Database
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 13/14
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 14/14
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 1/9(a) Dump/Load (Poor Man's Solution)
Fail
Load Transaction Log
Dump Transaction Log
Load Transaction Log
Dump Transaction Log
Load DB
Dump DB
SecondaryPrimary
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 2/9(a) Dump/Load (Poor Man's Solution)
Point Clients here
(manually or automatically)
Online DB
Load Transaction Log
(if available)
Dump Transaction Log
(if possible)
SecondaryPrimary
• Drawback: secondary unavailable prior Online DB
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 3/9(b) Dump/Load (Poor Man's Solution) with Standby Access
Dump Transaction Log
with standby_access
Load Transaction Log
Online DB for standby_access
Dump Transaction Log
with standby_access
Load DB
Dump DB
SecondaryPrimary
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 4/9(b) Dump/Load (Poor Man's Solution) with Standby Access
Online DB
Load Transaction Log
(if available)
Fail
Dump Transaction Log
(if possible)
Load Transaction Log
Online DB for standby_access
SecondaryPrimary
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 5/9(b) Dump/Load (Poor Man's Solution) with Standby Access
Point Clients here
(automatically or manually)
SecondaryPrimary
Advantage: Secondary available for non change Queries during normal Operation
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 6/9
(c) Database Device Mirroring: Protection against Disk Failures
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 7/9
(d) Replication Server (or ASE Replicator)
• Publish/Subscribe Model• Warm Standby Model (Database Granularity, also DDL Replication)• Latency Period• automatic Failover• automatic Client Failover (includes Application Change)
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 8/9
(e) Open Switch
- no application
change resp.
client redirect
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 9/9
(f) HA Companion Server
- depends on Cluster Technology
SunCluster
HACMP
MC/ServiceGuard
VeritasCluster
- ASE 2 in Standby Mode or with own Databases
- Client Redirect automatic through network interfaces
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: SQL Server 1/4
(a) Database Mirroring
- per Database
- possible in conjunction with Microsoft Cluster Service
- mirror Database available for limited reporting Needs
- optional "Witness" for automatic Failover
- Client redirection is accomplished through local Caching of the Server Names
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: SQL Server 2/4
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: SQL Server 3/4
(b) Database Snapshots
- read only Databases as exact copy of a User Database in a specific
Point of Time
at Page Level
Copy – on – Write (only modified Blocks will be copied)
for Reporting
for Recovery Purposes
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: SQL Server 4/4
(c) Replication
- copy Databases and Database Objects from one Database to another
and synchronize
- transactional
- also as multi-master variant (peer – to – peer)
- Replication with non SQL Server Databases is supported
(d) Log Shipping
- same Principle as Oracle Standby Database
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 1/7
(a) HADR (High Availability Disaster Recovery)
- takeover command
for role switch
- automatic client
reroute (client has
both connect information)
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 2/7
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 3/7
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 4/7
(b) Standby Database
- create Standby DB via Split Mirror or by Backup/Restore
- Log Shipping:
copy whole Log Files to standby Machine
from Archive Device
or directly via User Exit
secondary continuously rolls forward through Logs
when Primary fails:
copy over remaining Logs
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 5/7
db2 rollforward database <name> to end of logs and stop
Clients reconnect to Standby Database
- Replication:
use Data Propagator for Log Capturing at Primary
(Capture and Apply Subcomponents)
Standby DB available for Read Access
BiDi Replication possible
no need for physically identical Storage Partitions
Restriction to critical Tables possible
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 6/7
(c) MQ Replication
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 7/7
(d) Data Partitioning Feature
- not for High Availability but for Scalability
- Shared Nothing Architecture
- Agents may fail
- Hash Partitioning
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4. Vendor Comparison: Beyond Technology 4.1 Vendor Product Portfolios: Oracle vs Sybase
4.2 Platform Support / Market Shares
4.3 Cost Comparison: SQL Server 2005, Oracle 10g, DB/2 8.2
4.4 Total Cost of Administration: SQL Server vs. Oracle
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4.1 Oracle Product Portfolio 1/3
- Developer Suite
Developer
Discoverer
Designer
- BPEL Designer (see note)
Developer Tools
Oracle Fusion Middleware
- Application Server
- Identity Management
- Directory Services
MiddlewareOracle RDBMSDatabase
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4.1 Oracle Product Portfolio 2/3
- Oracle E-Business Suite
- Peoplesoft Enterprise
- Siebel CRM
- JD Edwards
Business Intelligence
Project "Fusion" (all Products have to be merged)
Administration Interface and Repository for managing all Database Instances (Grid Control)
Enterprise Management
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4.1 Oracle Product Portfolio 3/3
- Oracle Warehouse Builder
- Oracle OLAP
Data Warehouse
Collaboration Suite
- Content Services
- Real Time Collaboration
- Messaging
- Workspaces
Collaboration
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4.1 Sybase Product Portfolio 1/3
- Sybase IQ (BI, DWH)
- Replication Server
- Dynamic Archive
- Mirror Activator
- Real Time Data Services
Heterogeneous Data Services
Adaptive Server Enterprise (ASE)Database (OLTP)
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4.1 Sybase Product Portfolio 2/3
- SQL Anywhere
- Adaptive Server Anywhere (ASA)
- RFID Anywhere/Enterprise
- Mobile Link
- Afaria
- Content Integrator
- Enterprise Portal
- Unwired Accelerator
- Unwired Orchestrator
Information Anywhere
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4.1 Sybase Product Portfolio 3/3
- Workspace
- Power Designer
- Power Builder Family
- EA Server
Development
- AvantGoOn Demand Mobility Services
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4.2 Platform Support / Market Shares 1/3
-
-
-
-
-
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
<= 8.1.7
Unix
Solaris
AIX
HP-UX
Tru64
Linux
Irix (SGI)
SQL Server 2005Sybase ASE/RS 15
DB/2 UDB 8.2
OracleOperating System
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4.2 Platform Support / Market Shares 2/3
-x-xMac OS (>= X)---<= 8.1.7Novell NetwarexxxxMicrosoft Windows--x-OS 400
-
-
-
-
x
-
x
<= 9.2
z/OS (OS 390)
BS 2000
---xOpen VMS
SQL Server 2005Sybase ASE/RS 15
DB/2 UDB 8.2
OracleOperating System
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4.2 Platform Support / Market Shares (see note) 3/3
48.9
22.4
13.9
3.2
3.0
8.5
100.0
Market Share 2004 (%)
6.234
2.860
1.778
0.412
0.383
1.090
12.758
48.6
22.0
15.0
3.2
2.9
8.2
100.0
6.721
3.040
2.073
0.441
0.407
1.135
13.817
Oracle
IBM
Microsoft
Teradata
Sybase
Other
Total Market
Sales Volume 2004 (bn. USD)
Market Share 2005 (%)
Sales Volume 2005 (bn. USD)
Vendor
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4.3 Cost Comparison
The numbers in this chapter are from
Microsoft SQLServer 2005: Understanding Database Pricing (11/05, www.microsoft.com)
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4.3 Cost Comparison: Pricing - Editions
0.5 – 5.0- simplified Mgmt. Tools
- basic Security
- CPU, Memory Limits
Basic
0- limited DB functionality
- memory, CPU, DB size limits
Free
Price/CPU (1000 USD / CPU)
FeaturesEdition
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4.3 Cost Comparison: Pricing - Editions
25.0 – 40.0- HA
- Scalability
- High End Management Tools
- Enterprise Security
- no Limits
Enterprise
5.0 – 15.0- full DB functionality
- Basic Mgmt. Tools
- CPU limits
Standard
Price/CPU (1000 USD / CPU)
FeaturesEdition
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4.3 Cost Comparison: Pricing - Options
1.0
0.8
1.1
2.4
1.6
0.5
0.8
0.8
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
EE
Mgmt. AddOn
OLAP AddOn
DataMining AddOn
DB/2
8.2
Oracle
10g
SQL Server
2005
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4.3 Cost Comparison: SQL Server - Oracle
0.0add. Inst. EE6.5add. Inst. EE + above Opt.
HA
1.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
EE
Mgmt. Tools
Netw. Encr., SSO, PKI
Integr., Rep. Analysis Serv.
2.7
0.4
0.7
2.7
EE
Mgmt. Pack
Adv. Sec.
BI
Enterprise
0.41.0Standard
SQL Server 2005Oracle10g
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4.3 Cost Comparison: SQL Server – DB/2
0.0add. Inst.8.4add. Inst. EE + above Opt.
HA
3.3
0.0
0.0
EE
Integr.Services
Reporting + Analysis Serv.
3.3
1.4
3.7
EE
Warehouse Manager
OLAP Server
Enterprise
0.81.0Standard
SQL Server 2005DB/2 8.2
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4.3 Cost Comparison: TCO Saving SQL Serv. vs. Comp. Saving = 100%- TCO(MSSQL/Comp.)
45%
13%
67%
54%
56%
60%
33%
24%
67%
54%
56%
54%
Ongoing Operations
Design/Development
Software Licensing
Hardware
Maintenance
Training
Organisational App.
(100+ Users)
Departm. App.
(50-100 Users)
Cost factor
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4.4 Total Cost of Administration: SQL Server vs. Oracle
The numbers in this chapter are from
Microsoft SQL Server and Oracle Databases: A Comparative Study on Total Cost of Administration (TCA) (05/06, Alinean, Inc., www.alinean.com)
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4.4 Total Cost of Administration: SQL Server vs. Oracle
87
716
63.8
60.3
39.7
9.9
5567
10206
18.15
107
328
66.1
55.7
44.3
31.2
6784
2847
13.09
average Number of DB per company
average Number of Users per Database
mission critical Databases (%) (see note)
OLTP Databases (%)
DSS Databases (%)
Databases per DBA
Users per DBA
annual TCA per Database (USD)
annual TCA per User (USD)
OracleSQL ServerFigure
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4.4 Total Cost of Administration: SQL Server vs. Oracle
DBA Training (Hours/Year):
- SQL Server: 52.2
- Oracle: 63.1
Database Administrator Experience Levels (%)
25
38
37
38
38
24
Junior (0-5)
Intermediate (5-8)
Senior (8+)
Oracle DBASQL Server DBA
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4.4 Total Cost of Administration: SQL Server vs. Oracle
Average Time / Week / Database (Hours) (see note)
2.2
1.8
2.1
1.2
0.8
1.3
1.6
1.1
0.8
0.8
0.4
0.3
0.7
0.5
Design
Tuning
Problem
Security
Capacity
Backup
Reporting
OracleSQL ServerActivity
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Excursus 1: Oracle Basic Design Decisions 1/2
Under market pressure design decisions had to be done which up to now influence the product.
Transactional concept: non blocking queries, no read locks (see Note 1)
Architecture: Development on PDP-11 (see Note 2)
Two Task: separation of application process and DB engine
comm. with DB engine per IPC (Message Passing)
sharing of control information in Shared Global Area (SGA)
foundation for SQL*Net
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Excursus 1: Oracle Basic Design Decisions 2/2
1985: IBM world market leader (DBMS)
OLTP: IMS (no Ad Hoc, instead precompiled queries)
DSS: DB/2
Oracle: small budget => Ad Hoc Queries without precompilation
Parsing
Version 2: Rule Based Optimizer (heuristic, static rules)
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Excursus 2: Early Tool Development 1/3
Oracle 2: Appl. Programming required Knowledge in proc. Language
C, Fortran, Pascal, Cobol
expensive, difficult for On-Line User Interfaces
Oracle had available:
UFI (User Friendly Interface, => SQL*Plus)
RPT (Report Production Utility)
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Excursus 2: Early Tool Development 2/3 Oracle wanted to create a procedural environment from scratch => was
abandoned
without proper investigation of
user requirements
performance considerations
mathematical properties of the procedural language
1988: PL/SQL (came from public ADA + Syntax for embedding SQL)
UFI => AFI (Advanced Friendly Interface)
Goal:
User can edit arbitrary Ad Hoc commands
command buffer exchange to system editor (see note)
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Excursus 2: Early Tool Development 3/3
1985 – 1987: Oracle was used for small OLTP applications
Oracle started Development of nonprocedural Tools for AdHoc Query Formulation
Easy*SQL, FastForms (Vers. 4.1) => did not survive
IAF (Interactive Application Facility)
breakthrough: SQL*Forms 2.1 (Oracle 5.1, 1987)
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Excursus 3: Oracle Customer Relations 1/3
1980s: IT was Mainframe dominated, User Dissatisfaction
Oracle Marketing:
if your IT Dept. cannot meet your Needs => buy some Mini- Computers (VAX) of your Choice + some Terminals
Oracle will run everywhere
Applications you can program with our Tools (there was no Standard Software in these Days)
if you are not able: Oracle can do it for you!
begin of decentralization
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Excursus 3: Oracle Customer Relations 2/3
Oracle raised Expectations
Problems:
Support was needed during Installation
Scalability problems
Version 5: maximal 40 (42?) simultaneous Sessions
Forms did not work with Transaction Monitors (Tuxedo)
analyzing Performance Problems not possible
Solution: bigger Machines, good for License Dept.
V6: 120-250 sess., V7: 1250 sess.
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Excursus 3: Oracle Customer Relations 3/3
Unix enters the Datacentre
typically: dedicated Server per Application
transparent for Accounting and Provisioning
convenient for Users (nobody disturbs)
but: Users had to administrate their own Servers (Patches, Backups, …)
growing Applications could no longer exist isolated
beginning from Version 5 the Market was the driving Force concerning the functional Requirements of the RDBMS
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Excursus 4: Oracle Platform Support 1/2
V3-V6: VAX/VMS was development platform
process creation: huge CPU overhead
growing number of supported platforms: Oracle sold "Porting Kits" to hardware vendors (no need to develop "Operating System Dependent Layer")
large number of OS in data centers (=> market share!)
many OS were abandoned
Oracle ported in joint programs with most important hardware/OS vendors
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Excursus 4: Oracle Platform Support 2/2
1987: Sequent + Oracle 5.1 : first SMP port (see note 1)
1990: nCube: MPP support
Oracle opted also for the mainframe market (IBM dominated)
Version 5: VM/CMS + MVS
Oracle was not able to run its own business process on mainframe
mainframe business was a flop in the long run
PC market: 1986 Oracle 4.1 "The Cube" (see note 2)
breakthrough with NT 3.51 and OS/2
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules (*) 1/7(*) Codd, E.F. "Is Your DBMS Really Relational?" and "Does Your DBMS Run By the Rules?"
ComputerWorld, October 14 1985 and October 21 1985
1. Information Rule
- all data in tables (relations)
- tables consist of rows (tuples), no row ordering
- each row has the same columns
- column: scalar, no redefinition by the table definition, unique in table
2. Guaranteed Access Rule
Each datum has to be accesible without ambiguity (unique, primary keys!).
3. Systematic Treatment of NULL Values (see notes)
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules 2/7
4. Dynamic On-Line Catalog
- same access to the structure of the DBMS like data access
- "Dictionary"
-Oracle: Version 6: X$- and V$-Views yield SQL access to control and performance informations
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules 3/7
5. Comprehensive data Sublanguage
- SQL (many dialects)
declarative, non – procedural, no sequentiality, no loops, no branches
query result is also a table (relation)
select xx.zero_sal_qty
from (select count(*) zero_sal_qty from emp where sal=0) xx;
xx .. Table alias, zero_sal_qty .. column name
Oracle: View : Query in dictionary as table
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules 4/7
6. View Updating Rule
- Each data manipulation valid against a table has also to be valid against a view.
7. High – Level Insert, Update, Delete
- I,U,D has to be possible for any retrievable number of rows
update … set ..=.. where …;
8. Physical Data Independence
- SQL Programming possible without knowledge about storage of data.
DML: o.k.
DDL: not o.k. (mixture of log. and phys. specs) (see notes)
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules 5/7
9. Logical Data Independence
Data appearance should not change when table definitions change => views.
Very difficult in full generality (Normalization !).
10. Integrity Independence
- Definition of constraints forces data integrity.
- up to Oracle 7: unique index, NOT NULL constraint (enforced)
Application was responsible for data integrity.
- from Oracle 7: foreign key constraints, check constraints
Avoidance of user- or application errors.
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules 6/7
11. Distribution independence
- DBs may be distributed on different servers.
- Partly obsoleted by n-Tier Architectures and hardware developments.
- Oracle 5: Distributed Database Feature (query only)
- Oracle 7: 2PC
- Rule 2 may be violated when a table is located on different servers.
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules 7/7
12. Nonsubversion Rule
- No backdoor in the DB.
- All changes through SQL.
- Partly violated => SQL Loader, external tables
What is missing?
- transactional integrity (commit, rollback) (ACID)
- isolation levels
- privileges
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Appendix B: Client / Server Architecture: Oracle 1/4
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Appendix B: Client / Server Architecture: Sybase 2/4
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Appendix B: Client / Server Architecture: SQL Server 3/4
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Appendix B: Client / Server Architecture: DB/2 4/4
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App. C Data Encryption / Network Security: Oracle 1/2
- DBMS_CRYPTO Package for selectively encrypting sensitive Data
DES
AES
SHA-1 (see note)
- listener is password protected
- Virtual Private Database: provides database integrated access control
(access by different user groups to the same data: only relevant data are visible)
- Oracle Label Security: preconfigured and implemented VPD
- Network Traffic: ASO
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App. C Data Encryption / Network Security: Oracle 2/2
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App. C Data Encryption / Network Security: Sybase 1/1
- Database Dump/Load may be password protected
- PKI with SSL is available (SSL Plus Library API from Certicom Corp.)
- ASE 15 Encryption Option:
no external keys
permission based access control
no application modification
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App. C Data Encr. / Network Security: SQL – Server 1/1
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App. C Data Encryption / Network Security: DB/2 1/1
- on Mainframe: Data Encryption for IMS and DB/2 uses Crypto Hardware
(DES, AES) (Table Level)
- UDB: SQL built in Functions (column level)
Application Modification needed
- Network Security: relies on OS measures for encrypting Network Traffic
(ssh Port Forwarding)
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App. D: High Availability Concepts: Sybase 1/2
normal Operation
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App. D High Availability Concepts: Sybase 2/2
emergency Operation
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History and Comparison of Relational Database Management Systems
TechnoCircle HVB Information Services
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Contents
1. History of Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS)
2. Architecture of important RDBMS
3. Technology Comparison: Oracle, DB/2, Sybase, SQL-Server
4. Vendor Comparison: Beyond Technology
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1. History of Relational Database Management Systems
1.1 Origin and Foundation
1.2 History of Oracle
1.3 History of Sybase
1.4 History of SQL Server: Milestones
1.5 History of DB/2: Overview
1.6 Landmarks and Cross Relations
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2. Architecture Overview of important RDBMS
2.1 A Compilation of Generic Terms
2.2 Timeline of a Transaction
2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison
Oracle DB/2 Sybase SQL Server MySQL
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3. Technology Comparison: Oracle, DB/2, Sybase,SQLServer
3.1 Server Security Model
3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging
3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency
3.4 High Availability Concepts
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4. Vendor Comparison: Beyond Technology 4.1Vendor Product Portfolios
Oracle and Sybase
4.2 Platform Support / Market Shares
4.3 Cost Comparison SQL Server 2005 Oracle 10g DB/2 8.2
4.4 Total Cost of Administration SQL Server vs. Oracle
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 1/11
Q.: Why is the database industry dominated by US companies like IBM Oracle Corp
Sybase, Inc. Teradata Corp. (NCR Corp.) Microsoft?
A.: There was in the beginning a strong competition between industry and academic research.
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 2/11 19th century: Us Gov. needed reports from large datasets 1890: Herman Hollerith: first automatic information processing equipment
=> punchcard machine => census 1890 / 1900 were processed
1911: IBM founded (Hollerith et.al.) control of industry production, tax calculation not possible without
automatic data processing 1935: Social Security Act: records of 26 mio individuals, special
equipment by IBM Bureau of Census: bought UNIVAC I 1959: 200 computers in the Pentagon 1960s: remove hardware constraints from programmers, term:
"database"
UNIVAC I: first digital computer on commercial marketemerged from a project of the UPenn: Electronix Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC)
US dominance in the punch card industry laid the foundation for the dominance in electronic computing in general
database: the information stored on a computer system can structured and manipulated regardless from the specific hardware details
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 3/11
Standardization efforts computing => commercial market techniques for: data access, data quality, security, control
1960: US DoD: Conference on Data system Languages (Codasyl)
=> Cobol (Common Business Oriented Language) tapes => hard disks (serial => random) 1961: Charles Bachmann (GE): IDS (Integrated Data Store
System) 1960s: Database Task Force Group (Codasyl): Navigation with
computer languages in databases
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 4/11
1968: IBM: IMS (partly developed during the Apollo project) 1971: formal standard: Codasyl approach to database management
hierarchical database model
network database model => navigational databases (Bachmann 1973: The programmer as
navigator) adoption in mainframe market outside IBM (Eckert-Mauchley Comp.
Corp., Honeywell, Inc., Siemens AG, DEC, Prime Comp. Corp.)
IMS: Information Management System:2006: 100 million transactions in one day on a single sysplex (customer) 3000 days without outage (customer) 95% of Fortune 1000 companies use IMS 200 million end users 15 million GB of data 50 billion transaction / dayHierarchical and network database model: navigational databases•data in tree structure•parent child records (1:N, M:N)•loops, pointers•different record types, subrecords, subfields•User had to navigate within the data sets
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 5/11
Edgar F. Codd (IBM) was dissatisfied ("taking the old line view, that the burden of finding information should be placed on users …")
landmark paper: "A relational Model of Data for large shared Data Banks" (see note)
Indepence of Data from the Hardware- and Storage Implementation
automatic navigation to the data set (high level nonprocedural language for data access (Record => Set)
pointers => keys (primary, secondary)
theoretical proposal, no practical design or implementation
E. F. Codd: A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks. Commun. ACM 13(6): 377-387 (1970)
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 6/11
impact was not fully recognized (even by Codd) IBM: IMS was preferred (sole strategic) product (invest, infrastructure,
success, profit) relational model had to survive in and outside IBM Codd initiated public debate with Bachmann (Codasyl) 1970s: two projects for development of relational products:
Army, Air Force, Navy, NSF, UC Berkeley funded: Ingres IBM funded: System R (1973)
begin of competition!
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 7/11
System R: (see notes) high level, non navigational data independent user interface 1974/75 prototype
1978/79 fully functional, multi user version => SQL
Ingres (Interactive Graphics and Retrieval System) handling of geographic data 1974: Prototype, own query language: QUEL several revisions, testing through user community => feedback
rapid spread because of DEC hardware at universities
System/R Features----------------------•SQL (Chamberlin, Boyce)•CBO•Query Compiler•Ad Hoc Query Formulation (in contrast to navigational databases)•Online Data Definition
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 8/11Diffusion and Commercialization (Ingres) Source free available (1000 copies in circulation) Stonebraker founded Ingres Corp. (1994 bought by CA)
Robert Epstein (Chief Programmer) => Britton-Lee, Inc. => Sybase, Inc.
(ideas from Ingres, Public Agencies as first customers) Held/Youseffi => Tandem Comp., Inc. (predecessor of Nonstop SQL) Held: up to 1998 Sen. Vice Pres. Engineering, Oracle Hawthorn/Ubell => Britton-Lee => cofounder of Illustra Inform. Technol.,
=> Informix …
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 9/11
Epstein: "What came from Ingres was the experience of having built a prototype … to say what parts need to be done differently."
hard competition between Ingres and System R System R: 15 people Ingres 1973-1979: 30 people (never more than six)
SQL persisted (would have been possible years earlier)
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 10/11
Larry Ellison (IBM): read publications of the System R group => Oracle sold SQL compatible product before IBM
1980:
IBM developed SQL/DS => mainframe market second generation of relational systems Codd: ACM Turing Award
1982: End of Ingres Project 1985: continues in Postgres (UC Berkeley), object relational
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1.1 Origin and Foundation 11/11
Lessons learned strong governmental influence at dev. of rel. systems (tasks like census) funding speeds up commercialization (competition System R <=> Ingres)
free publication of research results => technology transfer in community scientists from industry laboratories founded their own enterprises
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1.2 History of Oracle (*) 1/16
SDL => RSI (Relational Software, Inc.)
market pressure: fast avail., cheap product,
- PDP-11 (widely used VAX platform), subqueries, joins, no transact.
- Oracle 2.3 : complete RDBMS
-RSI => Oracle Corp.
1979
1981
VAX Factor
1983
- Market Demand: RDBMS
- Larry Ellison (Marketing) , Bob Miner, Ed Oates (Code): Software Development Laboratories (SDL) => Implementation of a RDBMS => Oracle 2 (see notes)
- less than one year development time
1975-1979
1st Rel.: Oracle 2
•Oracle Insights: Tales of the Oak Table, Springer, Apress, 2004 •Version 1 would not sell•Oracle was the Codename of a CIA Project (Ellison, Miner)
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1.2 History of Oracle 2/16
- hard competition in database industry, begin of tool development
(see excursus 2)
- Oracle Marketing (see excursus 3)
- many systems only remakes of old hierarchical systems
- Codd: 12 Rules for RDBMS (Appendix A)
1985
- Rewrite in C (White Smith C)
- many basic design decisions (influence up to date) (see excurs 1)
- not very stable !
1983
Oracle 3
Portability
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1.2 History of Oracle 3/16
- encrypted passwords
- subqueries
- precompiler (Cobol, Fortran IV, PL/1)
SQL embedding in 3GL programs
1985/86
Vers. 5.1
- rewrite in K&R C
- Portability on almost any platform (flex. FS and IPC facility) (Note)
(see Excursus 4)
- Views, Named Accounts
- Read Consistency
1984
Version 4
Hardware had to provide atomic "Test+Set"-Operation (no integrity violations allowed)
Oracle Kernel has to check, if memory block can be used exclusively by 1 process (check if used and occupy in one atomic operation, which cannot be interrupted)
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1.2 History of Oracle 4/16
bad quality until Version 8
OCI was the choice (Library Calls for exec SQL in 3GL prg.)
- SQL*Net:
C/S Arch.
system, platform independence
DB Server also Client (Database Link)
Query Only Distrib. Database Support (see note)
Gateways for other DB engines
•Version 7: •2PC => Distributed Updating•synchronous and asynchronous Replication
•Version 8: Advanced Queueing Option
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1.2 History of Oracle 5/16
- standardized applications were needed
- Founding of Applications Division at Oracle (Business Mgmt. Software)
1987
growing spread of PCs => mismatch
Server: DB + Appl., PC: only Terminal + Interface
Two Task Arch. IPC => TCP/IP was possible (see note)
better networks => more effic. implementation of SQL*Net
n-Tier architectures were possible
- first tries with clusters
at first the Error was made: bring the application on the PC (10ms (10 Mbit Ethernet), 0.5s (X.25) Roundtriptime)Two Task: •separation of database and application on different servers•implicite assunption of instantaneous connection between Server and Client•architecture could not get rapid spread because of network performance
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1.2 History of Oracle 6/16
- true row level locking (additional charge) (see notes)
- Online Backups
- Shared Pool (minimization of parsing overhead)
1988 - 1991
Version 6
- Oracle: good for rapid dev . of OLTP Applications
- no scaling, few sessions
- no precompiled queries, Parsing Overhead
- RBO: good for OLTP on well normalized schemas
bad for DSS
- growing number of users aggravated performance problems
late 1980s
Problems:
Perf./
Scaling
Row Level Locking:no entries in lock poollock management in blocks => good for scaling
Competitors: Block-Level and Table Level Locking with Lock escalation
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1.2 History of Oracle 7/16
- change from block level logging to field level logging
- keep rollback segments in the database
recovery of undo structures via redologs (see notes)
Read Consistency
- huge memory consumption when many clients => MTS (see notes)
- no Upgrade Path from Oracle 5 to Oracle 6
Rollback Segments:RBS are also database blocks as the rest of the database => changes to the redologstherefore rollback of uncommitted changes during crash recovery possible
memory problems when many client sessions were active => MTS (100 sessions => 1GB memory !)(at the same time: Sybase at US fin. services: 16 kB per session)MTS:instable at the beginning (thread blocking)on VMS: because of overhead during process creation (dedicated server, many clients) MTS was good
MTS did not yield the desired memory saving effect
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1.2 History of Oracle 8/16
- Oracle had to rescue non-tech educated users from their errors
- data integrity: declarative constraints (up to now only unique keys and NULL-value checking)
- PL/SQL storage in database (procedural language + SQL)
- triggers: implement data rules (insert into a => update b)
- stored procedures: implement process rules
- =>radical changes in application design
- emergence of standard software (database independent design)
- role concept
1992
Version 7
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1.2 History of Oracle 9/16
- Business Applications in Client/Server Mode
- Port to Windows
- Distributed Transactions (2PC)
- Parallel Query => Data WareHouse
- porting of all Tools to Windows
- graphical EM: not usable (see note)
1993
1994
1995
1996
- Cost Based Optimizer: not perfect
- Rule Based Optimizer since Version 6 no longer improved
even Oracle staff used internally 3rd party management tools
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1.2 History of Oracle 10/16- LOBs (storage of unstructured data)
- Partitions (ease of administration)
- Materialized Views (Benchmark Opportunism) (see note)
- Function Based Indexes (error tolerance)
- Bitmapped Indexes: Performance Boost for DWH
- Oracle Discoverer: Ad Hoc End User Query Tool for BI
- Support for object oriented Developing, new datatypes
- completely revised development suite (native Java):
Jdeveloper
- Oracle Application Server 4.0 (middle tier)
1997
Version 8
View: storage of a queryMaterialized View: View execution and storage of results
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1.2 History of Oracle 11/16
- native Java Runtime Environment
- SQLJ (SQL in Java Code)
- interMedia: managing of Multimedia Content
- Repository for Designer (Modeling and Application Generation Tool)
- move away from C/S Paradigma: Oracle Applications run in browser
- Port of RDBMS and Application Server to Linux
- RAW Iron Initiative: Flop (Pack. of Server+cust. OS+Oracle Env.)
- XML Support
1998
Version 8i
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1.2 History of Oracle 12/16
- Oracle WebDB (manage DB driven Websites) => Oracle Portal
- Applications 11 => Applications 11i
- Internet Filesystem (iFS) (see note)
- Oracle AS9i Portal Technology (Content Mgmt, Portlets, Deployment Options)
- OAS9i Wireless
- Webcache Technology (Part of OAS)
- Preview Cache Fusion (RAC)
1999
2000
iFS:Drag and Drop of Windows Files of arbitrary Format in a directory structure => move transparent into the DBVersioningCheck In, Check OutFulltext SearchAPIs for FS (FTP, Mail, NFS, …)
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1.2 History of Oracle 13/16
- DEC could not enter the mainframe market
- research in
SMP- architectures (cache coherency)
cluster architectures (Shared Disks)
also with Oracle Shared Instances (Instance:DB = N:1)
(see note)
- Real Application Cluster (Oracle Cluster Technology)
2001
Version 9i
Oracle Cluster
Oracle 5: "Clustered Oracle"Oracle 6.2 - Oracle 8: Oracle Parallel Server (OPS), scaling problems, problems with synchronizing memory contents of the nodesOracle 9i: RAC: breakthrough in performance and scaling
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1.2 History of Oracle 14/16
-development was always customer driven, but now:
-enormous improvements in manageability and self-tuning of the database (see note)
- Automatic Workload Repository (AWR)
- Automatic Database Diagnostic Monitor (ADDM)
- Automatic Space Managament (ASM)
2004
Oracle 10g
- native XML Support
- Jdeveloper: J2EE- and XML-Support
- Table Compression (Block Level) (Index Compr. in Vers. 5 and 8)
- Flashback Query
- OEM becomes usable (scalable architecture, repository)
2001
weakness of Oracle was ever:- DBA had to invest time and skill (see later)
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1.2 History of Oracle 15/16
- Selftuning must be licensed!
- Selftuning is valuable for small businesses without dedicated DBAs
- Oracle can afford not to satisfy small customers at moderate prices and let big customers pay extra charges
- Product Quality:
new features often half hearted and error prone (see note)
initial release of each version is unusable in the real world
this is in 10g different
Errors in Oracle:
Version 6: Oracle could not run ist own business on Oracle => tkprof, hidden init.ora - Parameters
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1.2 History of Oracle - Summary 16/16
Manageability, SelftuningOracle 102004Cluster technology comes of ageOracle 92001PartitioningOracle 81997Data IntegrityOracle 71992ScalabilityOracle 61988Client/ServerOracle 51986Transactional Integrity, Read ConsistencyOracle 41984PortabilityOracle 31983first commercially available RDBMSOracle 21979
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1.3 History of Sybase 1/13
- SQL Server (Beta) on VMS
- 100 employees, 150 customers
1987
- Robert Epstein (UCB), Mark Hoffmann (Univ. of Arizona) => Robert Epstein Consulting => Sybase (System+Database)
- Sun: major Partner
- SQL Server V1.0 (Beta) and DB Library on SunOS:
Client/Server Database for OLTP (Appl. Logic in Server)
pioneer with Stored Procedures, Triggers
1984
1986
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1.3 History of Sybase 2/13
- Sybase SQL Server 4.0: text, image datatypes
- Vision of "Total Solution C/S Company" : aquis. of SQL Solutions
- Integration of IBM MVS mainframes in "C/S World"
1990
- Open Client / Open Server: API for Comm. between Clients and different Data Sources
1989
- second major Partner: Microsoft
- SQL Server for OS/2 (joint dev. of Sybase, Microsoft, Aston-Tate)
- Version 3.0: Stored Procedures, Triggers, CBO
first market Version
- Sybase: Unix/VMS, Microsoft: Windows, OS/2
1988
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1.3 History of Sybase 3/13
- Version 4.8: SMP support (engines), union, new datatypes
- Version 4.9: multibyte Character Sets
- Version 4.9.1: extraordinary stable
- Version 4.9.2: log-based Replication
1992
- Version 4.2: international language support
- enters Chinese Market
- Powersoft introduces Powerbuilder 1.0
1991
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1.3 History of Sybase 4/13
-Backup Server, Monitor Server,
- RI Constraints, Cursors, Identity Columns, system roles
- thresholds, Auditing, encrypt. Password Storing, sybsystemprocs DB
- CT Library replaces DB Library (C/S API)
but: severe Installation- and Stabilityproblems
- Replication Server (Version 10): Open Replication Technology allows replication regardless of Database
- Vertical Industry Solutions Group
Healthcare, Financial Services, Oil & Gas, Telecom
1993
System X
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1.3 History of Sybase 5/13
- Merger with Powersoft (leading supplier of developm. tools for 4GL Applications)
- with Powersoft came Watson: small RDBMS and Enterprise Synchronization Solution on sev. OS for mobile and embedded products
SQL Anywhere Studio => Adaptive Server Anwhere
undisputed mobile DB market leader
1995
- Microsoft quits Partnership (reseller for OS/2 and Win NT)
gets copy of Sourcecode Version 4.2 Sybase SQL Server
Microsoft SQL Server now an independent Product
- both comp.: SQL Server and Transact SQL (T-SQL) (Trademark still today owned by Sybase)
1994
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1.3 History of Sybase 6/13
- dominant provider in mobile DBMS Market
ASA: market share 22% (2000: 68%)
- Strategy: Focus on OLTP, DataWarehouses, Internet Applications
1996
- Version 11.0:
Improvement in Quality
Table Partitioning
Memory Partitioning (named Caches)
ANSI Transaction Isol. Level 0 (Dirty Reads)
sp_sysmon, online database, Server config File
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1.3 History of Sybase 7/13
- Version 11.5:
Sybase SQL Server renamed to Adaptive Server Enterprise
case expression
CIS (Proxy tables)
XP Server, Historical Server
dbcc checkstorage, user defined Roles
Query Parallelism, Resource Limits
log. Process Manager
- Jaguar: 1999 EA-Server (Web Appl. Server for >30 DB)
1997
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1.3 History of Sybase 8/13
- Version 11.9 "EARL" (Eagerly Awaited Row Level Locking)
DOL on row level / page level (see note)
lock timeouts , lock table statement
standby_access database, reorg command
ANSI Isol. Level 2
license monitor
Optimizer Statistics Redesign
- 11.0.3.3 : Port to Linux
1998
Before:Table Locking => argument was: concurrency problems should be treated within the application => not real life
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1.3 History of Sybase 9/13
- ASA for Handhelds
- Aqu. Home Financial networks, Comb. with Financ. Server Unit
=> own subsidiary: Finacial Fusion (leader in fin. Services)
2000: 68% Wall Street comp., 95% Fortune 100 with Sybase
market share in Financial Sector: 58%
- Aqu. of Data Warehose Network => Sybase Industry Warehose Studio
- ASE Version 12.0:
exec immediate, identity_gap, license manager
abstract query plans, alter table, quiesce database
optional licensable features: Java in ASE, Adv. Sec., DTM, HA
1999
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1.3 History of Sybase 10/13
- ASE 12.5
union views, login trigger, dynamic server reconfiguration
larger page sizes, XQL-Parser
ddlgen
new licensable Options:
LDAP, Filesystem access with Proxy Tables
builtin Jave Enterprise Beans Server
- Customer Base: 90% of Investment Banks, 60% dep. banks, NYSE
2001
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1.3 History of Sybase 11/13
- Version 12.5.0.3:
MDA monitoring Tables
multiple Temp DBs
statistics sampling
- Version 12.5.1: job scheduler, dynamic data caches
2003
- Version 12.5.0.1:
ASE Replicator (lightweight Data Replication)
sybmigrate
free Developer Edition
- Version 12.5.0.2: Port on MacOS
2002
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1.3 History of Sybase 12/13
- revised partitioning support
-computed columns, function indexes
- Adv. System Metrics, auto update Statistics
- native conn. to MQSeries
- completely rewritten CBO
- Unicode Data Support
- native Encryption in the Database
- selective load
2005
ASE 15
Version 12.5.3: cross platform transfer with dump/load
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1.3 History of Sybase – Summary 13/13
Sybase iAnywhere: Marketleader in Mobile Devices2004
Sybase IQ: worldwide largest DWH at Nielson Media2003
IT Infrastructure Standard in Wall Street => Dominance Fin.Service Market1995
early activities in China: today market leader1991
Open Replication Technology – Database independent1990
SQL Server: 1sc C/S Database for distr. Appl. and mobile Dev. Mgmt.1998
Foundation1984
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1.4 History of SQL Server – Milestones 1/2
Port of SQL Server to Win NT (MS and Sybase)1992
Microsoft SQL Server 4.2 for 16-Bit OS/2 1.3 is released 1992
Microsoft and IBM quit joint Deveopment of OS/21991
SQL Server 1.1 supports Win 3.0 Clients
Aston – Tate quits Development of SQWL Server
1990
SQL Server 1.0 for OS/21989
Microsoft, Sybase and Aston-Tate port SQL Server to OS/21988
Sybase launches SQL Server for Unix1987
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1.4 History of SQL Server – Milestones 2/2
SQL Server 20052005
SQL Server 20002000
SQL Server 7.01998
Quit of joint Development of SQL Server by sybase and Microsoft.
Sybase develops Unix variant, Microsoft Windows variant separately.
1994
Microsoft and Sybase release SQL Server 4.2 for Windows NT1993
Win NT 3.1 is released1993
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1.5 Overview DB/2 History: Foundations 1/2
- IBM Implementation of the relational Model
- Row Level Locking
- Rel. Model for Distributed Environments
- Optimization Strategies in the Relational Model
- Data Management in diverse Systems
System/R Project
Project Aris
Rstar Project
Starburst Project
Garlic Project
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1.5 Overview DB/2 History: Milestones 2/2
DB/2 for Linux1999
DB/2 for Windows1995DB/2 for HP-UX, Solaris1994DB/2 for AIX1993SQL/400 for AS/4001988Database Manager in OS/2 (first on distr. Systems)1987DB/2 (Database 2 on VMS)1983SQL/DS (Mainframe VM, VSE)1982
Database Integration in System/38
(first Implementation of System / R)
1980
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1.6 Landmarks and Cross Relations 1/3
DB/2 for MVS1983
Oracle Corp. 1st comm. Database (SQL)
1979
Larry Ellison: Oracle1977
System/R: RDBMS prototype1976
Codd: concept RDBMS1970
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1.6 Landmarks and Cross Relations 2/3
MS SQL 7.0ASE 11.9.2Oracle 81998
MS SQL 6.5ASE 11.51996
MS SQL 6.0ASE 11.0
Merger Sybase Powersoft
DB/2 for Windows
1995
End of PartnershipDB/2 for AIX1993
MS SQL 1.01989
Sybase – Microsoft Partnership
Oracle 61988
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1.6 Landmarks and Cross Relations 3/3
Replication Server 15
MS SQL 2005ASE 152005
Oracle 10g2004
Sybase IQ2003
Oracle 9i2001
MS SQL 2000ASE 12.0Oracle 8iDB/2 V72000
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2. Architecture Overview of important RDBMS
2.1 A Compilation of Generic Terms
2.2 Timeline of a Transaction
2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison
Oracle DB/2 Sybase SQL Server MySQL
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2.1 Generic Terms: Logical Components 1/10
IndexIndexIndexIndexIndexIndexIndexspecial purpose table for quicker lookups
TableTableTableTableTableTableTableRelation (Grouping of related information, Figure B)
DatabaseDatabaseDatabaseDatabaseDatabaseDatabaseDatabasePersistent Objects on Storage (Figure A)
ServerServerInstanceServerInstanceInstanceInstance
Background Processes and Memory Structures
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQLInformixDB/2Generic
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Gen. Terms: 2/10
Figure A
Graphical Representation
of a Database
W. Curtis PrestonUnix Backup and RecoveryO'Reilly
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2.1 Generic Terms - Logical Components 3/10
RowRowRowRowRowRowRow = Tuple
Collection of related Attributes (Figure B)ObjectObjectObjectObjectObjectObjectObject
any type of table
varchar (max)
varbinary (max)
image data type
BLOB, CLOB
(smart) BLOBspace
BLOB
space
Data which do not fit in a "normal" table
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQLInformixDB/2Generic
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Gen.Terms 4/10
Figure B
Table Layout
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2.1 Generic Terms: Logical Components 5/10
CheckpointCheckpointCheckpointCheckpointCheckpointCheckpointCheckpoint
Point in Time where everything is on DiskTransactionTransactionTransactionTransactionTransactionTransactionTransaction
Activity, which changes one or more Attributes
AttributeAttributeAttributeAttributeAttributeAttributeAttribute
Basic Element of Data within a Table (Figure B)
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQLInformixDB/2Generic
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2.1 Generic Terms: Physical Components 6/10
Extent (3)ExtentExtentN/AExtent (2)ExtentExtentlogically contiguous number of pages (1)
Datafile/
Filegroup
DeviceDatafileDatafileChunkContainerDatafileStructure for storing data (raw or cooked files)
PagePageBlockPagePagePage/Block
Basic Building Block
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQL
(Inno)
InformixDB/2Generic
(1) may or may not physically contiguous(2) also physically contiguous(3) 8 physically contiguous pages
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2.1 Generic Terms: Physical Components 7/10
N/ASegmentTablespaceDbspaceTablespace (3)
Dataspace
structures where tables go in (4, Figure C)
N/ADisk fragment
SegmentTablespaceTblspaceObjectTablespace
Space occupied by a single Table (Figure C)
Allocation Unit
AllocationUnit (2)
N/AN/ATblspaceN/AFragment
collection of logically contiguous extents (1)
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQLInformixDB/2Generic
(1) may or may not be physically contiguous(2) smallest possible storage unit which can be added to a database (32
extents)(3) database managed / system managed / DMS raw(4) may consist of several datafiles, may consist of severasl tablespaces
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Terms: 8/10
Figure C
Tablespace Layout
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2.1 Generic Terms: Physical Components 9/10
Transaction Log
Transaction Log
Undo Segments
Undo (2)
Segments
Physical Log
LogfilesRollback Log
storage place of the "before image" of a transaction
master database
master database
control fileInformation Schema (1)
sysmaster onconfig file
rootdb
control files
Master Database
Inventory of all database parts
PartitionPartitionPartitionN/AFragmentPartitionPartition
structure for distributing a table across multiple dataspaces
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQLInformixDB/2Generic
(1) MyIsam Files(2) InnoDB TS
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2.1 Generic Terms: Physical Components 10/10
Transaction Log
Transaction Log
RedologBinary Log
Logical Log
LogfilesTransaction Log
log place for transaction and page changes
MSSQLSybaseOracleMySQLInformixDB/2Generic
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2.2 General Transaction Properties - ACID -
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After commit the transaction is permanent.
Durability
The effects of a transaction may not be visible to other transactions until the transaction is committed.
Isolation
Database is brought from one consistent state to another
Consistency
either all of a transaction happens or nothing
Atomicity
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2.2 General Transaction Properties - Timeline -
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What happens when a user enters a transaction?
3. Page to be modified is loaded in the data buffer.4. The "before image" of the page is copied to the Rollback Log Buffer.5. Writing of the "after image" of the page in the transaction log buffer.6. changes are applied in the data buffer
Up to now nothing is on disk. In the event of a system crash the transaction will not persist.
5. rollback log buffer is flushed to the rollback log (safety of the before image)6. flush changed data page to disk (datafile)7. write the after image to the transaction log (for redo purpose)
Now the transaction will be committed in the transaction log.
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - Oracle -
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Process Model: Unix. multiple processesWindows: multiple Threads
Processes:PMON: Process Monitor (cleanup)SMON: System Monitor (crash recovery)DBWR: Database Writer (blocks -> disk)LGWR: Logwriter (redolog buffer -> redolog)CKPT: Checkpointing, updates Block HeadersARCH: copies Redologs to archive logs
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - Oracle -
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Datafiles: Datafiles and Tempfiles
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - DB2/UDB -
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db2wdog: watchdog, cleanupdb2sysc: system controller (startup/Shutdown)db2pclnr: page cleaner (dirty pages -> disk)db2pfchr: Prefetcher (async data -> buffer pools)db2loggr: Log writer (log buffer -> files)db2dlock: deadlock detectordb2agent: coordination agentdb2agntp: Subagent (works on partition of plan)
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - DB2/UDB -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - DB2/UDB -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - DB2/UDB -
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Categories of Tablespaces:SMS – system managedDMS – Database managed
Types of tablespaces:-regular-- temporary-- long DMS
Space Allocation Methods:-Directory – SMS-File, Device - DMS
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - Sybase ASE -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - SQL Server -
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - MySQL -
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myISAM – File for Dictionary always (Information Schema)
InnoDB:Version <= 4.0 one datafileVersion >= 4.1 one datafile or one datafile per table
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - MySQL -
The MySQL Pluggable Storage Engines
- MyISAM Table Locking
no Transactions
- InnoDB ACID compatible row level locking Tablespaces
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2.3 RDBMS Architecture Comparison - MySQL -
default Isolation Level: Read Committed multi version concurrency control (readers do not block writers
and vice versa)
- Archive compressed data -> ILM
- Federated links to tables on another server
ILM: Information Lifecycle Management
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3. Technology Comparison: Oracle, DB/2,Sybase,SQLServer 3.1 Server Security Model
3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging
3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency
3.4 High Availability Concepts
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3.1 Server Security Model 1/5
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Login
DB User
Login
DB User
N / A
User
- right to access the database server
- security domain and
Quotas
Privileges
Resource Limits
- Login Account
- DB User
yesnew in 2005-rudimentary- collection of logical structures of data
- classification of objects (namespace)
Schema
DB/2SQL ServerSybaseOracleDefinitionFeature
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3.1 Server Security Model 2/5
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noyesyesyesnamed (protected) group of related privileges
-Roles
database pr.
object pr.
statement lev. pr.
object pr.
system pr.
object pr.
system pr.
object pr.
right to run a particular SQL statement or to access a database object
-Privileges
(Authorization)
via Windows Groups
up to 11.5N/A- collection of similar users
- Groups
DB/2SQL ServerSybaseOracleDefinitionFeature
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3.1 Server Security Model 3/5
Authentication: Identity Verification
- Operating System (externally)
- Network (globally)
3rd Party (DCE, Kerberos)
PKI: SSL, OCI, Wallets, LDAP
Remote: Radius
- Database: (password)
- Multitier: (with OCI)
Oracle
DCE: Distributed Computing Environment (De Facto Standard in the commercial Unix Environment)DCE provides a complete Distributed Computing Environment infrastructure. It provides security services to protect and control access to data, name services that make it easy to find distributed resources, and a highly scalable model for organizing widely scattered users, services, and data. DCE runs on all major computing platforms and is designed to support distributed applications in heterogeneous hardware and software environments.
www.opengroup.org
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3.1 Server Security Model 4/5
Authentication: Identity Verification
- Windows Authentication (Integrated Security, NTLM or Kerberos)
- SQL Server Authentication
SQL Server
- ASE (password)
- external:
Kerberos (Network)
LDAP
PAM (OS)
Sybase
PAM: Pluggable Authentication ModulesNTLM: Windows NT Lan ManagerWindows NT Challenge/Response (NTLM) is the authentication protocol used on networks that include systems running the Windows NT operating system and on stand-alone systems. NTLM stands for Windows NT LAN Manager, a name chosen to distinguish this more advanced challenge/response-based protocol from its weaker predecessor LAN Manager (LM).
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3.1 Server Security Model 5/5
Authentication: Identity Verification
- Server: comparison with OS
- Server_ Encrypt
- Client: comparison to valid credentials on client node
- Kerberos
- Krb_Server_Encrypt
- add. Security Plugins may be installed (LDAP, PKI, …)
DB/2
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Oracle 1/6Logical Backup
- import/export (proprietary format), impdp/expdp (XML)
- SQL Loader for large quantities of data
Physical Backup
- noarchivelog Mode: redologs will be overwritten in a circular fashion no PITR possible protection from instance failure most recent changes available only for crash or instance recovery
- archivelog mode: redologs will be duplicated to an archivelog
complete PITR from instance or media failure possible all changes are permanently saved in archivelogs
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Oracle 2/6
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Oracle 3/6
- Offline Backup: copy of DB files while Database ist down
- Online Backup: User Managed B&R:
begin .. end backup + OS commands recover Statement
RMAN + (opt. Recovery Catalog) + API for Integration with 3rd – Party Media Manager
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Oracle 4/6
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Oracle 5/6
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x
(full, user, table) - Level
-xautomatic Backup
x-xcorrupt Block Detection
--xincremental Backup
x (Undo required for consistency)
x (begin .. end Backup)
x (no begin .. end Backup)
open DB Backup
-xxclosed DB Backup
ExportUser managedRMANFeature
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Oracle 6/6
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x-xOS independent Language
-xxBackup init-File, Password – File
xxx (API)Backup to Media Manager
--xBackup catalog
ExportUser managedRMANFeature
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Sybase 1/3
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Sybase 2/3
Physical Backup
- same Logging Model as SQL Server (per database one Transaction Log)
- dump database (only whole Database)
- dump transaction (thereafter Log will be truncated)
- threshold procedures have to be implemented
- database options may be set: abort transaction on log full truncate log on checkpoint (removal of committed transactions)
- Media Manager Integration through SQL*Backtrack (BMC) or Veritas Netbackup (Veritas)
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: Sybase 3/3
Logical Backups
- bcp (for data, only at object level)
- ddlgen (for structures)
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: SQL Server 1/3
Physical Backup
- auto growing tran log
may be defined otherwise
stored threshold procedure
- full backup (backup database)
(local tape or disk)
- full differential backup
(backup database with
differential) based on full backup
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: SQL Server 2/3
- partial Backup: Backup of write intensive Portions of a Database
- partial differential backup
- File backup, Filegroup Backup: backup of a Database at the File Level
(faster Recovery)
- transaction Log backup: default autogrow enabled (backup log)
(after Backup it will be truncated)
- API for split Mirror hot Backup available (with suspension of Database Activity)
- no integration of media management software
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: SQL Server 3/3
Logical Backup
- bcp
- DTS (Data Transformation Service)
- new in 2005: SSIS (SQL Server Integration Service) – an ETL Tool
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: DB/2 1/4
Logical Backup
- import/export (sql select in various formats) Formats:
IXF (Integration Exchange Format) (see note) WSF (Worksheet File Format) (IBM spreadsheet format) DEL Delimited ASCII (seq. file with row and column del.) ASC Undelimited ASCII (seq. file with row del.)
- load for large quantities of data
IXF: for data exchange between RDBMS independent of exporting/importing DB unbroken sequence of variable length records H Header T Table C Column D Rows
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: DB/2 2/4Logging
- circular Logging Default only logs with current transaction data (active logs) are kept
only full and Offline Backups ("Version Recovery") protects from Instance Failure
- retained Logging PITR possible protects from Instance and Media Failure
Log Archiving via Userexit (call of external Program: diskcopy, TSM, tape, any XBSA compliant utility)
Version Recovery is the restoration of a previous version of the database using an image that was created during a backup operation.XBSA X/Open Backup Services API
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: DB/2 3/4
Backup per Database
Log Files Transaction Recording
Recovery History File Summary of Backup Information
to determine Recovery Options
Tablespace Change History File determine Log Files for Recovery
of a Tablespace
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3.2 Backup/Recovery and Logging: DB/2 4/4
Physical Backup
- retained (archive) Logging: db2 backup <database> (Program)
db2backup (API) incremental Backups (cumulative, delta) possible split Mirror Backups
-circular Logging: OS Backup only offline (Integration with TSM possible)
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 1/27
Fundamental problem of Multi User Databases
How to ensure Data Consistency and maintain Concurrency at the same Time?
RDBMS handle this differently:
- Oracle: Multi Versioning
- Non Oracle (Sybase, DB/2, SQL Server): Read locking
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 2/27
Multi Versioning
- read consistent queries: consistent results with respect to a given point in time
- non – blocking queries: queries are never blocked by writers of data
- Oracle is able to simultaneously materialize multiple versions of the data.
Read Consistent Queries: any resultset would be current with respect to one of two points in time:-The point at which a cursor was opened (default in Read Committed Isolation mode).-The point at which the transaction to which the query belongs began (default in Read Only and Serializable isolation mode).
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Demo Example
- cursor does not fetch data
- delete command places data in
undo segment
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Transaction Isolation Levels
Purpose of a Transaction: Take DB from one consistent State to another.
In a Multiuser DB different Transactions are carried out simultaneously.
The Sensitivity of a Transaction to Changes made by others is determined via Transaction Isolation Levels.
Isolation Levels are defined in Terms of Phenomena.
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Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
query at times t1,t2 (t2 > t1) may yield additional rows at t2
Phantom Read
read of the same row at times t1,t2 may yield different results
Nonrepeatable Read
read of uncommitted data
no data integrity
Dirty Read
ExplanationPhenomenon
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Transaction Isolation Levels (x: permitted, -: not permitted)
---L3: Serializable
x--L2: Repeatable Read
xx-L1: Read Committed
xxxL0: Read Uncommitted
Phantom ReadNonrepeatable ReadDirty ReadIsolation Level
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Locking and Default Isolation Levels (Non-Oracle)
- all locks are stored in memory
- locking schemes: row (page), table
- Concurrency and Overhead grow from table level locking to row level locking.
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- row Level Locking
- Lock Escalation may occur.
- Default Isolation Level: L1
DB/2
- Allpages Locking (data + index)
- Datapages Locking
- Datarows Locking
- Lock Escalation may occur (page => table, row => table)
- shared (for read) and exclusive locks
- Default Isolation Level: L1
Sybase
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- Row Level Locking
- Lock Escalation may occur (Row => Table)
- Default Isolation Level : L1
- new in 2005: Snapshot Isolation (attempt to mimic Oracle Behaviour, uses tempdb)
SQL Server
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 10/27Locking and Isolation Levels (Oracle)
- Locks are stored in Data Blocks (no lock escalation).
- Locks only when data are modified.
- Oracle always uses non-blocking reads (Multi Versioning).
- Writes do not block Reads and vice versa.- L1 and L3 are supported (L1 default)
- Intention of SQL Standard: L0: to mimic non blocking reads L1: does not give consistent results
L2: to guarantee read consistent results
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However, in Oracle:
- L1: because all queries are read consistent, it is equivalent to L2
- L0: The "spirit" of L0 is in Oracle always achieved (all reads are non – blocking)
- Additionally L4 (Read Only) Level is supported (L3 + no data modification). Transaction sees only changes, that were committed when
transaction began, but IUD are not allowed.
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 12/27Example: Take a look at a Transaction in all Isolation Levels and compare
Oracle- and Non-Oracle Behaviour.
840.25840.25Sum
500.00100.009874
0.000.007813
240.25240.254562
100.00500.001231
Balance (t8)Balance (t1)Account (PK)
Table AccountsRow
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2 simultaneous Sessions: Session 1: select sum(balance) from account; Session 2: transfer 400.00 from Account 123 to Account 798.
Caption:
S: Session O: Oracle like Database
R: Row NO: Non – Oracle like Database
L: Level
t: time
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Read Uncommitted (L0) (Oracle does not support L0, so L1 is used.)
R3=0.00 Sum=740.25R3=0.00 Sum=740.25T4
Update R1, excl. Lock on R1
set R1=100.00
T3
R2=240.25 Sum=740.25R2=240.25 Sum=740.25T2
R1=500.00 Sum=500.00R1=500.00, Sum=500,00T1
TransferS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L0Time
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Sum=840.25S=1240.25 Wrong!T8
CommitT7
R4=100.00 Sum=840.25
(see Note)
R4=500.00 Sum=1240.25T6
Update R4, excl. Lock on R4
set R4=500.00
T5
TransferS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L0Time
T6(O): Value as it existed, when query began (T5>T1), is retrieved from Undo.
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Read Committed (L1)
R3=0.00 Sum=740.25R3=0.00 Sum=740.25T4
Update R1; excl. Lock
Set R1=100.00
T3
R2=240.25 Sum=740.25R2=240.25 Sum=740.25T2
R1=500.00 Sum=500.00R1=500.00 Sum=500.00T1
TransferS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L1Time
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The same Isolation Levels yield different answers!
-R4=500.00 S=1240.25
Wrong!
T8
Commit;T7
R4=100.00 (from Undo)
Sum=840.25
try to read R4 (is locked)
S1 blocks, Query stops
T6
Update R4; excl. Lock
R4=500.00
T5
TransferS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L1Time
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3.3 Data Consistency vs. Concurrency 18/27Repeatable Read (L2) (not supported/needed in Oracle, uses L1)
try to update R1 (is locked) Update suspended
Transfer NO
R3=0.00 Sum=740.25
R3=0.00 Sum=740.25
Lock R3
T4
Update R1; excl. Lock
Set R1=100.00
T3
R2=240.25 Sum=740.25
R2=240.25 Sum=740.25
Lock R2
T2
R1=500.00 Sum=500.00
R1=500.00 Sum=500.00
Lock R1
T1
Transfer OS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L2Time
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Transfer NO
Commit;
release all Locks
T8
Commit;T7
R4=100.00 (from Undo) Sum=840.25
R4=100.00 Sum=840.25
Lock R4
T6
Update R4; excl. Lock
Set R4=500.00
T5
Transfer OS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L2Time
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Commit;
Update R4
Set R4=500.00
excl. Lock
Update R1
Set R1=100.00
excl. Lock
Transfer NO
T11
T10
T9
Transfer OS1 (O) : L1S1 (NO) : L2Time
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Remarks
- Correct Answer also in NO.
- Cost: Transactions had to be executed sequentially!
- Readers of Data will block Writers of Data!
- Spurious Errors still possible: see next Page.
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Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
Classical Deadlock
One Transaction will be chosen as victim, killed and rolled back.
try to read R4 (is locked)
Query suspended
T6
try to Update R1 (is locked)
Update suspended
T5
R3=0.00 Sum=740.25T4
Update R4=50.00; excl. LockT3
R2=240.25 Sum=740.25 Lock R2T2
R1=500.00 Sum=500.00 Lock R1T1
Transfer 50.00 from R4 to R1S1 (NO) L2Time
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Porting Issues
In DB with shared Read Locks and L2: Lost Updates cannot happen.
But:
In DB without shared Read Locks: Lost Update Problem!
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Lost Update Problem (Database without Shared Read Locks)
T1: S1: read R1
T2: S2: read R1
T3: S1: Update R1; Commit;
T4: S2: Update R1; Commit:⇒ Result from T3 is lost!
How to avoid: Manual Locking (optimistic or pessimistic)
optimistic Locking: defer locking as late as possible (Application Design!)
pessimistic Locking: select for update (lock for write, not for read)
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Serializable (L3)
Each Transaction appears to be the only Transaction in the Database at a given Time.
Oracle:
- L3 extends the Read Consistency from Statement to Transaction Level (using Undo).
- Price: ORA-8177: can't serialize access for this transaction
(when updating data which has changed since the begin of the transaction)
Non Oracle:
- locking may yield Deadlocks, Blocking, …
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Read Only (L4) (Oracle Only)
- as L3 but no modifications allowed => no ORA-8177
- in other systems: L2
- because in Oracle without Locking: ORA-1555 might happen.
ORA-1555: Snapshot too old.
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Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
nnnnnnO
ynnyyyNO
L3
ynnyyyNOL2
nn (*)nnnnO
yyynnyNO
L1
yyynnnNOL0
Lock Escalation
or Limits
Lost
Updates
Incorrect
Query
Results
Deadlock
Sensitive
Reads
Reads
Block Writes
Writes
Block
Reads
Implem
entation
Isolation
Level
(*) with select for update
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 1/14
- Real Application Cluster
- Flashback
- Data Guard
- Replication (Streams)
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 2/14
(a) Real Application Cluster (RAC) and Oracle ClusterWare (OCW)
High Availability and horicontal Scaling
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 3/14
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 4/14
Oracle Clusterware
- comes from Tru-Cluster (DEC)
- OCW + ASM:
Ressource Monitoring Ressource Management Cluster Control Failover APIs Cluster Membership
LVM
OCW: Oracle ClusterwareASM: Automatic Storage Management
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 5/14
OCW:
ONS: Oracle Notification Server
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 6/14
additional features of OCW:
- Cluster for any Application
- Loadbalancing, Workloadmanagement
- Fast Application Notification (FAN) for subscribed Clients
- Transparent Application Failover (TAF)
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 7/14(b) Flashback – Protection from logical Errors
set whole Database back in TimeFlashback Database
restore Database Objects after dropping themFlashback Drop
set Database Objects back in TimeFlashback Table
generate Undo-SQL for historical OperationsFlashback Transaction Query
to reproduce historical Operations on Database Objects Flashback Versions Query
PurposeFeature
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 8/14(c) DataGuard (Standby Database)
- User Errors, logical Corruptions
- Disaster Recovery
- Fast Site and Database Failover
- Planned Switchover for Maintenance
- Divergence for Reporting and Testing (Flashback)
- taking Backups / Load !
- Read Only Capability
Physical Standby Database
Purpose /Protection fromType of Standby Database
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 9/14
- Disaster Recovery
- Read/Write Capability for normal Operation
- additional Objects may be created for Reporting
- Rolling Database Upgrades
Logical Standby Database
Purpose /Protection fromType of Standby Database
Maximum Availability Architecture: RAC + DataGuard
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 10/14
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 11/14
(d) Replication: Oracle Streams
- highest Degree of Flexibility
- highly customizable
- heterogeneous Platform Support
- high Configuration and Administration Flexibility
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 12/14
1. capture Messages at a Source Database
2. stage Messages in Queues
3. propagate Messages to another Queue
4. consume Messages
5. apply Changes in Destination Database
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 13/14
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
When you use Streams, replication of a DML or DDL change typically includes three steps:
A capture process or an application creates one or more logical change records (LCRs) and enqueues them into a queue. An LCR is a message with a specific format that describes a database change. A capture process reformats changes captured from the redo log into LCRs, and applications can construct LCRs. If the change was a data manipulation language (DML) operation, then each LCR encapsulates a row change resulting from the DML operation to a shared table at the source database. If the change was a data definition language (DDL) operation, then an LCR encapsulates the DDL change that was made to a shared database object at a source database.
A propagation propagates the staged LCR to another queue, which usually resides in a database that is separate from the database where the LCR was captured. An LCR can be propagated to a number of queues before it arrives at a destination database.
At a destination database, an apply process consumes the change by applying the LCR to the shared database object. An apply process can dequeue the LCR and apply it directly, or an apply process can dequeue the LCR and send it to an apply handler. In a Streams replication environment, an apply handler performs customized processing of the LCR and then applies the LCR to the shared database object.
Step 1 and Step 3 are required, but Step 2 is optional because, in some cases, an application can enqueue an LCR directly into a queue at a destination database. In addition, in a heterogeneous replication environment in which an Oracle database shares information with a non-Oracle database, an apply process can apply changes directly to a non-Oracle database without propagating LCRs.
Figure 1-1 illustrates the information flow in a Streams replication environment.
Figure 1-1 Streams Information Flow
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Oracle 14/14
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 1/9(a) Dump/Load (Poor Man's Solution)
Fail
Load Transaction Log
Dump Transaction Log
Load Transaction Log
Dump Transaction Log
Load DB
Dump DB
SecondaryPrimary
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 2/9(a) Dump/Load (Poor Man's Solution)
Point Clients here
(manually or automatically)
Online DB
Load Transaction Log
(if available)
Dump Transaction Log
(if possible)
SecondaryPrimary
• Drawback: secondary unavailable prior Online DB
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 3/9(b) Dump/Load (Poor Man's Solution) with Standby Access
Dump Transaction Log
with standby_access
Load Transaction Log
Online DB for standby_access
Dump Transaction Log
with standby_access
Load DB
Dump DB
SecondaryPrimary
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 4/9(b) Dump/Load (Poor Man's Solution) with Standby Access
Online DB
Load Transaction Log
(if available)
Fail
Dump Transaction Log
(if possible)
Load Transaction Log
Online DB for standby_access
SecondaryPrimary
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 5/9(b) Dump/Load (Poor Man's Solution) with Standby Access
Point Clients here
(automatically or manually)
SecondaryPrimary
Advantage: Secondary available for non change Queries during normal Operation
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 6/9
(c) Database Device Mirroring: Protection against Disk Failures
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 7/9
(d) Replication Server (or ASE Replicator)
• Publish/Subscribe Model• Warm Standby Model (Database Granularity, also DDL Replication)• Latency Period• automatic Failover• automatic Client Failover (includes Application Change)
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 8/9
(e) Open Switch
- no application
change resp.
client redirect
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: Sybase 9/9
(f) HA Companion Server
- depends on Cluster Technology SunCluster
HACMP MC/ServiceGuard VeritasCluster
- ASE 2 in Standby Mode or with own Databases
- Client Redirect automatic through network interfaces
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: SQL Server 1/4
(a) Database Mirroring
- per Database
- possible in conjunction with Microsoft Cluster Service
- mirror Database available for limited reporting Needs
- optional "Witness" for automatic Failover
- Client redirection is accomplished through local Caching of the Server Names
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: SQL Server 2/4
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: SQL Server 3/4
(b) Database Snapshots
- read only Databases as exact copy of a User Database in a specific
Point of Time
at Page Level Copy – on – Write (only modified Blocks will be copied) for Reporting for Recovery Purposes
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: SQL Server 4/4
(c) Replication
- copy Databases and Database Objects from one Database to another
and synchronize
- transactional
- also as multi-master variant (peer – to – peer)
- Replication with non SQL Server Databases is supported
(d) Log Shipping
- same Principle as Oracle Standby Database
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 1/7
(a) HADR (High Availability Disaster Recovery)
- takeover command
for role switch
- automatic client
reroute (client has
both connect information)
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 2/7
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 3/7
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
Synchronization Modes
synchronuous:commit succeeds, if log data is on disk on primary and secondarynear synchronuous:commit succeeds, if log data is on disk at primary and has been received by secondaryasynchronuous:commit succeeds, when log data is on disk at primary and has been sent to secondary
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 4/7
(b) Standby Database
- create Standby DB via Split Mirror or by Backup/Restore
- Log Shipping:
copy whole Log Files to standby Machine from Archive Device or directly via User Exit
secondary continuously rolls forward through Logs when Primary fails:
copy over remaining Logs
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 5/7
db2 rollforward database <name> to end of logs and stop Clients reconnect to Standby Database
- Replication:
use Data Propagator for Log Capturing at Primary (Capture and Apply Subcomponents) Standby DB available for Read Access BiDi Replication possible no need for physically identical Storage Partitions
Restriction to critical Tables possible
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 6/7
(c) MQ Replication
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3.4 High Availability Concepts: DB/2 7/7
(d) Data Partitioning Feature
- not for High Availability but for Scalability
- Shared Nothing Architecture
- Agents may fail
- Hash Partitioning
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4. Vendor Comparison: Beyond Technology 4.1 Vendor Product Portfolios: Oracle vs Sybase
4.2 Platform Support / Market Shares
4.3 Cost Comparison: SQL Server 2005, Oracle 10g, DB/2 8.2
4.4 Total Cost of Administration: SQL Server vs. Oracle
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4.1 Oracle Product Portfolio 1/3
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
- Developer Suite
Developer
Discoverer
Designer
- BPEL Designer (see note)
Developer Tools
Oracle Fusion Middleware
- Application Server
- Identity Management
- Directory Services
MiddlewareOracle RDBMSDatabase
Business Process Engineering Language
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4.1 Oracle Product Portfolio 2/3
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
- Oracle E-Business Suite
- Peoplesoft Enterprise
- Siebel CRM
- JD Edwards
Business Intelligence
Project "Fusion" (all Products have to be merged)
Administration Interface and Repository for managing all Database Instances (Grid Control)
Enterprise Management
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4.1 Oracle Product Portfolio 3/3
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
- Oracle Warehouse Builder
- Oracle OLAP
Data Warehouse
Collaboration Suite
- Content Services
- Real Time Collaboration
- Messaging
- Workspaces
Collaboration
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4.1 Sybase Product Portfolio 1/3
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
- Sybase IQ (BI, DWH)
- Replication Server
- Dynamic Archive
- Mirror Activator
- Real Time Data Services
Heterogeneous Data Services
Adaptive Server Enterprise (ASE)Database (OLTP)
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4.1 Sybase Product Portfolio 2/3
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen- SQL Anywhere
- Adaptive Server Anywhere (ASA)
- RFID Anywhere/Enterprise
- Mobile Link
- Afaria
- Content Integrator
- Enterprise Portal
- Unwired Accelerator
- Unwired Orchestrator
Information Anywhere
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4.1 Sybase Product Portfolio 3/3
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
- Workspace
- Power Designer
- Power Builder Family
- EA Server
Development
- AvantGoOn Demand Mobility Services
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4.2 Platform Support / Market Shares 1/3
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
-
-
-
-
-
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
<= 8.1.7
Unix
Solaris
AIX
HP-UX
Tru64
Linux
Irix (SGI)
SQL Server 2005Sybase ASE/RS 15
DB/2 UDB 8.2
OracleOperating System
only Operating Systems, no Hardware Platforms
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4.2 Platform Support / Market Shares 2/3
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-x-xMac OS (>= X)---<= 8.1.7Novell NetwarexxxxMicrosoft Windows--x-OS 400
-
-
-
-
x
-
x
<= 9.2
z/OS (OS 390)
BS 2000
---xOpen VMS
SQL Server 2005Sybase ASE/RS 15
DB/2 UDB 8.2
OracleOperating System
only Operating Systems, no Hardware Platforms
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4.2 Platform Support / Market Shares (see note) 3/3
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48.9
22.4
13.9
3.2
3.0
8.5
100.0
Market Share 2004 (%)
6.234
2.860
1.778
0.412
0.383
1.090
12.758
48.6
22.0
15.0
3.2
2.9
8.2
100.0
6.721
3.040
2.073
0.441
0.407
1.135
13.817
Oracle
IBM
Microsoft
Teradata
Sybase
Other
Total Market
Sales Volume 2004 (bn. USD)
Market Share 2005 (%)
Sales Volume 2005 (bn. USD)
Vendor
Source: Gartner Group: Dataquest, 2006Sales Volume:•License Fees•Updates•Support•technical Consulting
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4.3 Cost Comparison
The numbers in this chapter are from Microsoft SQLServer 2005: Understanding Database Pricing (11/05,
www.microsoft.com)
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4.3 Cost Comparison: Pricing - Editions
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
0.5 – 5.0- simplified Mgmt. Tools
- basic Security
- CPU, Memory Limits
Basic
0- limited DB functionality
- memory, CPU, DB size limits
Free
Price/CPU (1000 USD / CPU)
FeaturesEdition
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4.3 Cost Comparison: Pricing - Editions
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25.0 – 40.0- HA
- Scalability
- High End Management Tools
- Enterprise Security
- no Limits
Enterprise
5.0 – 15.0- full DB functionality
- Basic Mgmt. Tools
- CPU limits
Standard
Price/CPU (1000 USD / CPU)
FeaturesEdition
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4.3 Cost Comparison: Pricing - Options
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1.0
0.8
1.1
2.4
1.6
0.5
0.8
0.8
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
EE
Mgmt. AddOn
OLAP AddOn
DataMining AddOn
DB/2
8.2
Oracle
10g
SQL Server
2005
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4.3 Cost Comparison: SQL Server - Oracle
Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
0.0add. Inst. EE6.5add. Inst. EE + above Opt.
HA
1.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
EE
Mgmt. Tools
Netw. Encr., SSO, PKI
Integr., Rep. Analysis Serv.
2.7
0.4
0.7
2.7
EE
Mgmt. Pack
Adv. Sec.
BI
Enterprise
0.41.0Standard
SQL Server 2005Oracle10g
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4.3 Cost Comparison: SQL Server – DB/2
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0.0add. Inst.8.4add. Inst. EE + above Opt.
HA
3.3
0.0
0.0
EE
Integr.Services
Reporting + Analysis Serv.
3.3
1.4
3.7
EE
Warehouse Manager
OLAP Server
Enterprise
0.81.0Standard
SQL Server 2005DB/2 8.2
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4.3 Cost Comparison: TCO Saving SQL Serv. vs. Comp. Saving = 100%- TCO(MSSQL/Comp.)
45%
13%
67%
54%
56%
60%
33%
24%
67%
54%
56%
54%
Ongoing Operations
Design/Development
Software Licensing
Hardware
Maintenance
Training
Organisational App.
(100+ Users)
Departm. App.
(50-100 Users)
Cost factor
Dtudy conducted by NerveWire (http://www.microsoft.com/sql/evaluation/compare/tco.asp)Period considered: 3 yearsMS SQL 2005DB/2 8.2Oracle 10g
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4.4 Total Cost of Administration: SQL Server vs. Oracle
The numbers in this chapter are from Microsoft SQL Server and Oracle Databases: A Comparative Study on
Total Cost of Administration (TCA) (05/06, Alinean, Inc., www.alinean.com)
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4.4 Total Cost of Administration: SQL Server vs. Oracle
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716
63.8
60.3
39.7
9.9
5567
10206
18.15
107
328
66.1
55.7
44.3
31.2
6784
2847
13.09
average Number of DB per company
average Number of Users per Database
mission critical Databases (%) (see note)
OLTP Databases (%)
DSS Databases (%)
Databases per DBA
Users per DBA
annual TCA per Database (USD)
annual TCA per User (USD)
OracleSQL ServerFigure
percentage of oracle database resp sql server databases (classification of the corresponding application)
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4.4 Total Cost of Administration: SQL Server vs. Oracle
DBA Training (Hours/Year):
- SQL Server: 52.2
- Oracle: 63.1
Database Administrator Experience Levels (%)
25
38
37
38
38
24
Junior (0-5)
Intermediate (5-8)
Senior (8+)
Oracle DBASQL Server DBA
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4.4 Total Cost of Administration: SQL Server vs. Oracle
Average Time / Week / Database (Hours) (see note)
2.2
1.8
2.1
1.2
0.8
1.3
1.6
1.1
0.8
0.8
0.4
0.3
0.7
0.5
Design
Tuning
Problem
Security
Capacity
Backup
Reporting
OracleSQL ServerActivity
total time of all dbas within an organization allocated to various administration tasks / number of databases (sql or oracle)
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Excursus 1: Oracle Basic Design Decisions 1/2
Under market pressure design decisions had to be done which up to now influence the product.
Transactional concept: non blocking queries, no read locks (see Note 1) Architecture: Development on PDP-11 (see Note 2)
Two Task: separation of application process and DB engine comm. with DB engine per IPC (Message Passing)
sharing of control information in Shared Global Area (SGA) foundation for SQL*Net
1. Transactional concept: - bevor image file (predecessor of undo) for queries and rollback
2. PDP-11: 16 bit address space, => execs > 32kB needed overlays => performance overhead => Baby Oracle should run as executable < 32 kB
1. PDP–11: good on IPC
3. SGA: Shared Global Area => (Version 4 on PC -> single user DB) => System Global Area
5. same story: Undo – segments => rollback segments (Version 6) => undo segments (Version 9)
6. same story: SCN (System Change Number => System Commit Number)7. same story: MTS is not multi threaded
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Excursus 1: Oracle Basic Design Decisions 2/2
1985: IBM world market leader (DBMS)
OLTP: IMS (no Ad Hoc, instead precompiled queries)
DSS: DB/2
Oracle: small budget => Ad Hoc Queries without precompilation
Parsing
Version 2: Rule Based Optimizer (heuristic, static rules)
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Excursus 2: Early Tool Development 1/3
Oracle 2: Appl. Programming required Knowledge in proc. Language C, Fortran, Pascal, Cobol expensive, difficult for On-Line User Interfaces
Oracle had available: UFI (User Friendly Interface, => SQL*Plus) RPT (Report Production Utility)
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Excursus 2: Early Tool Development 2/3 Oracle wanted to create a procedural environment from scratch => was
abandoned without proper investigation of
user requirements performance considerations mathematical properties of the procedural language
1988: PL/SQL (came from public ADA + Syntax for embedding SQL) UFI => AFI (Advanced Friendly Interface)
Goal: User can edit arbitrary Ad Hoc commands command buffer exchange to system editor (see note)
Development Platform: VAX/VMS: system editor: EDT = from here comes the well known afiedt.buf file
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Excursus 2: Early Tool Development 3/3
1985 – 1987: Oracle was used for small OLTP applications Oracle started Development of nonprocedural Tools for AdHoc Query
Formulation Easy*SQL, FastForms (Vers. 4.1) => did not survive IAF (Interactive Application Facility) breakthrough: SQL*Forms 2.1 (Oracle 5.1, 1987)
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Excursus 3: Oracle Customer Relations 1/3
1980s: IT was Mainframe dominated, User Dissatisfaction Oracle Marketing:
if your IT Dept. cannot meet your Needs => buy some Mini- Computers (VAX) of your Choice + some Terminals
Oracle will run everywhere Applications you can program with our Tools (there was no
Standard Software in these Days) if you are not able: Oracle can do it for you!
begin of decentralization
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Excursus 3: Oracle Customer Relations 2/3
Oracle raised Expectations Problems:
Support was needed during Installation
Scalability problems Version 5: maximal 40 (42?) simultaneous Sessions Forms did not work with Transaction Monitors (Tuxedo) analyzing Performance Problems not possible Solution: bigger Machines, good for License Dept.
V6: 120-250 sess., V7: 1250 sess.
40 sessions: Douglas Adams (42!) used MicroVAX2 + Oracle 5 as word proceessor
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Excursus 3: Oracle Customer Relations 3/3
Unix enters the Datacentre typically: dedicated Server per Application
transparent for Accounting and Provisioning
convenient for Users (nobody disturbs) but: Users had to administrate their own Servers (Patches,
Backups, …) growing Applications could no longer exist isolated
beginning from Version 5 the Market was the driving Force concerning the functional Requirements of the RDBMS
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Excursus 4: Oracle Platform Support 1/2
V3-V6: VAX/VMS was development platform process creation: huge CPU overhead
growing number of supported platforms: Oracle sold "Porting Kits" to hardware vendors (no need to develop "Operating System Dependent Layer")
large number of OS in data centers (=> market share!)
many OS were abandoned Oracle ported in joint programs with most important hardware/OS
vendors
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Excursus 4: Oracle Platform Support 2/2
1987: Sequent + Oracle 5.1 : first SMP port (see note 1) 1990: nCube: MPP support Oracle opted also for the mainframe market (IBM dominated)
Version 5: VM/CMS + MVS Oracle was not able to run its own business process on mainframe mainframe business was a flop in the long run
PC market: 1986 Oracle 4.1 "The Cube" (see note 2) breakthrough with NT 3.51 and OS/2
1. both companies were owned by Oracle2. box with diskettes and manual: Oracle 4.1 + UFI + RPT + FastForms
needed >640kB memory
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules (*) 1/7(*) Codd, E.F. "Is Your DBMS Really Relational?" and "Does Your DBMS Run By the Rules?"
ComputerWorld, October 14 1985 and October 21 1985
1. Information Rule
- all data in tables (relations)
- tables consist of rows (tuples), no row ordering
- each row has the same columns
- column: scalar, no redefinition by the table definition, unique in table
2. Guaranteed Access Rule
Each datum has to be accesible without ambiguity (unique, primary keys!).
3. Systematic Treatment of NULL Values (see notes)
3. early Oracle: NULL="empty string" (tragical error)
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules 2/7
4. Dynamic On-Line Catalog
- same access to the structure of the DBMS like data access
- "Dictionary"
-Oracle: Version 6: X$- and V$-Views yield SQL access to control and performance informations
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules 3/7
5. Comprehensive data Sublanguage
- SQL (many dialects) declarative, non – procedural, no sequentiality, no loops, no
branches query result is also a table (relation)
select xx.zero_sal_qty
from (select count(*) zero_sal_qty from emp where sal=0) xx;
xx .. Table alias, zero_sal_qty .. column name
Oracle: View : Query in dictionary as table
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules 4/7
6. View Updating Rule
- Each data manipulation valid against a table has also to be valid against a view.
7. High – Level Insert, Update, Delete
- I,U,D has to be possible for any retrievable number of rows update … set ..=.. where …;
8. Physical Data Independence
- SQL Programming possible without knowledge about storage of data. DML: o.k. DDL: not o.k. (mixture of log. and phys. specs) (see notes)
OFA: Best Practices phys. location of datafiles can be changed without recreating the databaseOracle 10g: ASM implements this rule
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules 5/7
9. Logical Data Independence
Data appearance should not change when table definitions change => views.
Very difficult in full generality (Normalization !).
10. Integrity Independence
- Definition of constraints forces data integrity.
- up to Oracle 7: unique index, NOT NULL constraint (enforced)
Application was responsible for data integrity.
- from Oracle 7: foreign key constraints, check constraints Avoidance of user- or application errors.
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules 6/7
11. Distribution independence
- DBs may be distributed on different servers.
- Partly obsoleted by n-Tier Architectures and hardware developments.
- Oracle 5: Distributed Database Feature (query only)
- Oracle 7: 2PC
- Rule 2 may be violated when a table is located on different servers.
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Appendix A: The 12 Codd Rules 7/7
12. Nonsubversion Rule
- No backdoor in the DB.
- All changes through SQL.
- Partly violated => SQL Loader, external tables
What is missing?
- transactional integrity (commit, rollback) (ACID)
- isolation levels
- privileges
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Appendix B: Client / Server Architecture: Oracle 1/4Gliederung durch Klicken hinzufügen
dedicate Server architecture: one server process per client connectionshared server architecture: connection poolingOracle Net Services: support diffferebt naming sources (flat file, ldap, easy naming)
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Appendix B: Client / Server Architecture: Sybase 2/4
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Appendix B: Client / Server Architecture: SQL Server 3/4
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Appendix B: Client / Server Architecture: DB/2 4/4
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App. C Data Encryption / Network Security: Oracle 1/2
- DBMS_CRYPTO Package for selectively encrypting sensitive Data DES AES
SHA-1 (see note)
- listener is password protected
- Virtual Private Database: provides database integrated access control
(access by different user groups to the same data: only relevant data are visible)
- Oracle Label Security: preconfigured and implemented VPD
- Network Traffic: ASO
SHA: Secure Hash AlgorithmMD5: Message DigestAES: Advanced Encryption StandardDES: Data Encryption Standard
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App. C Data Encryption / Network Security: Oracle 2/2
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App. C Data Encryption / Network Security: Sybase 1/1
- Database Dump/Load may be password protected
- PKI with SSL is available (SSL Plus Library API from Certicom Corp.)
- ASE 15 Encryption Option:
no external keys permission based access control no application modification
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App. C Data Encr. / Network Security: SQL – Server 1/1
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App. C Data Encryption / Network Security: DB/2 1/1
- on Mainframe: Data Encryption for IMS and DB/2 uses Crypto Hardware
(DES, AES) (Table Level)
- UDB: SQL built in Functions (column level)
Application Modification needed
- Network Security: relies on OS measures for encrypting Network Traffic
(ssh Port Forwarding)
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App. D: High Availability Concepts: Sybase 1/2
normal Operation
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App. D High Availability Concepts: Sybase 2/2
emergency Operation
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