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Heather Barry Kappes
Department of Management, London School of Economics and Political Science
Symposium on motivational psychology in educational settings
20 July, 2013
How imagining a positive future shapes motivation and behaviour
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“…desirable outcomes such as health, wealth, and happiness can be attracted simply by changing
one’s thoughts and feelings”
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: A testimonial
I began visualizing and seeing myself hanging up my diploma. Everyday I told myself “I have my high
School diploma”…
The day of my test I didn't really understand the mathematics…
I passed! …I see this as a doorway to success and life is easy.
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Fantasies
• Free thoughts and mental images (Oettingen & Wadden 1991)
• Akin to mental simulations (Taylor, Pham,
Rivkin, & Armor 1998) or daydreams (Klinger 1971, 1990)
• Distinct from beliefs, attitudes, and values (Oettingen & Mayer 2002)
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Positive fantasies
• Positively experienced images of future desired events
• Depict the smooth attainment and unrestricted enjoyment of the desired future
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Fantasies and academic achievement in
vocational students
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September
January
Measured baseline academic competence
Measured fantasies, other predictors Recorded GPA
Measured attendance
Ages 17 to 62 (M = 35 years, SD = 11.90)
44% African or African American 18% Hispanic or Latina
21% Caucasian or European American5% Asian or Asian American
12% other minority or did not indicate
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Measure fantasies
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Measure fantasies
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Results
Positivity of fantasies Final GPA
β = -.19, p = .07
β = .25, p = .04
(Kappes, Oettingen, & Mayer, 2011, EJSP, Study 2)
β = -.32, p = .001
β = -.27, p = .02
Days absent
95% CI for indirect effect -.24 to .01 Adjusting for baseline academic
competence, age, expectations of success, self-reported self-discipline
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• Replicates previous research finding that positive fantasies predict low achievement
(Oettingen & Mayer 2002; Oettingen & Wadden 1991)
• Extends it to disadvantaged sample
• Suggests low effort as a mechanism
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Energization
• Energy is mobilized by physiological factors such as exercise, as well as by the anticipated exertion of effort (e.g., Wright, Brehm & Bushman 1989)
• Positive fantasies allow people to mentally experience the desired future in the present; they conceal the need to invest effort
• Positive fantasies should yield low energization
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Manipulate fantasies about upcoming week
Measure feelings of energization
Measure accomplishment in previous week
1 week
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Positive fantasy
Imagine that everything you do in the next week will go really well. Please generate and write down some positive thoughts and daydreams about your experiences in this coming week.
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Neutral fantasy
Please generate and write down some thoughts and daydreams about your experiences in this coming week.
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t(34) = 4.06, p < .001, 2 = .33χ2(1) = 11.64, p < .01, = .57
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DV: Energization
How much are you presently feeling“excited” “enthusiastic”“active”
(α = .76)
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Energization
t(38) = 2.13, p = .04, 2 = .11(Kappes & Oettingen, 2011, JESP, Study 3)
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DV: Accomplishment
One week later…
“How well did the past week go for you?” “How disappointed do you feel about the way that
this past week went for you?” (reversed) “How close was the way the week went to the way
you had imagined it would go?”“How often did you feel in control?”“How often did you feel ‘on top of it’?” “I felt very pressed for time” (reversed)“I managed time easily”
(α = .83)
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Accomplishment
t(38) = 2.00, p = .05, 2 = .10(Kappes & Oettingen, 2011, JESP, Study 3)
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Mediation
Week accomplishment
β = -.17, p = .29
β = -.41, p = .01 β = .41, p = .01
β = -.31, p = .05
Energization
Adjusting for irritation after the manipulation
Positive fantasy condition
95% CI for indirect effect .03 to .65
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• Positive fantasies about an idealized future resulted in low energization
• One mechanism by which positive fantasies produce poor achievement
…Always?
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• Sometimes positive mental images enhance attainment, (e.g., Gregory, Cialdini, & Carpenter 1982)
• These are tasks that demand relatively few resources
• Amount of resources demanded may moderate effect of positive fantasies
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• Sometimes positive mental images enhance attainment (e.g., Gregory, Cialdini, & Carpenter 1982)
• These are tasks that demand relatively few resources
• Amount of resources demanded may moderate effect of positive fantasies
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Manipulate amount of money demanded to help resolve crisis
Measure relevant behavior: decision to help
Manipulate fantasies about the resolution of a crisis:
positive fantasies versus factual description
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Positive fantasies about crisis being
resolved
Factual descriptions of crisis being
resolved
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Resources demanded
$1 / $25
DV: Agreement to donate versus not
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Agreement to donate
χ2(1) = 8.30, p = .004 Kappes, Sharma, & Oettingen, 2013, JCP, Study 1
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• Amount of resources demanded moderated effect of positive fantasies
• Positive fantasies – decreased relevant behavior that demanded
relatively many resources; – (sometimes) increased relevant behavior that
demanded few resources
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Reconciling with other research
• Positive illusions benefit mental health (Taylor & Brown 1988)
– Different form of positive thinking
• Interventions use positive visualizations to boost happiness (Sheldon & Lyubomirsky 2006)
– Examine short-term outcome
• Athletes prescribed positive imagery to increase confidence (Moritz, Hall, Martin, & Vadocz 1996)
– Actually rather “negative” imagery
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Implications and suggestions
• Positive imagery as a starting point; distinction between what’s helpful for goal setting and what’s helpful for goal striving
• Incorporate obstacles, negative aspects into idealized descriptions of possible futures
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Thank you
My collaborator on these projects:Gabriele OettingenNew York University
For copies of any of these papers, please contact [email protected]