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The Ways in which Corals May or May Not Adapt
To Climate Change/Global Warming
by
Paul W. Sammarco1
and
Kevin B. Strychar2
1Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium (LUMCON)Chauvin, LA, USA
2Annis Water Resources Institute/Grand Valley State University
Muskegon, MI, USA
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Current Hermatypic Coral Temperature and Latitudinal Limits
(Gross, 1977)
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Atmospheric COAtmospheric CO22 and Temperature and Temperature
Over the Past 160,000 YearsOver the Past 160,000 Years
© Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP
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1984
2002
Mt. Hood, OregonGlacier National Park
. 1910 – 150 glaciers
. 2004 – 30 glaciers, each reduced
by 2/3 in size
Glaciers – The Integrators of
Atmospheric Temperature
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Climate Change / Global Warming
. Energy required to lift an apple to a table = One (1) Joule (J)
. 500 MW power plant produces 5 x 108 J per second
. Between 1960s and 1985-1994, between 10o-24o N lat.
- Pacific – increase of 1.79 x 108 J m-2 (Wong et al., 2001)
. Since the 1950s, our oceans have absorbed an extra 15 x 1022 J
. If warming ceased today, the temperature of the ocean would not begin to reverse until the year 2075 (Church, 2007).
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EndosymbioticZooxanthellae
Present inHermatypic
Corals
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http://www.ecotourism.ca/effectsofcoralbleaching.html
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Reef Prior to Bleaching
www.cosmos.ne.jp/~kamiyama/full.htm
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Reef During the Bleaching Process
www.cosmos.ne.jp~kamiyama/full.htm
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1-2 Months after Bleaching
www.cosmos.ne.jp~kamiyama/full.htm
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. 1979 - First recorded coral bleaching event
. 1998 - El Nino yr - 48% of reefs in the W. Indian Ocean suffered bleaching;
16% of the world’s reefs appeared to have died.
. 2002 - 60-95% of the 110,000 sq mi of the Great Barrier Reef bleached
. Many more events since this time
Coral Bleaching
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Regions of bleaching over the past 25 years
Country reporting coral bleaching
Locations of major bleaching events
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/outreach/coral/sor/images/map7-large.gif
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Experimentation with
Scleractinian Corals –
Great Barrier Reef
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Programmed Cell Death
Apoptosis
. Series of biochemical events leading to characteristic cell morphology and death (incl. blebbing,
cell membrane changes, shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and c-DNA fragmentation.)
. e.g., Differentiation of human fingers and toes in development of a fetus.
Necrosis
. Premature death of cells caused by acute cellular injury by external factors, such as infection, toxins, or trauma.
. e.g., Necrotic tissue resulting from a recluse spider bite (LA).
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Symbiodinium sp. cells in situwithin the coral Acropora hyacinthus
_Control_ _Experimentally Increased Temperature_
NormalCell
ApoptoticCell
NecroticCell
1 m 500 nm 500 nm
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Morze KoralowePl.reeflex.net/tiere/a756_Favites_complanata.htm
Favites complanata(Faviidae)
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Percentage (%)of Cells
F. complanata(Faviidae - coral)
Symbiodinium sp.(symbiont)
Time (hrs)
Favia complanataApoptotic Cells, Host vs. Symbiont
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Normal
Necrotic Apoptotic
Contrary to popular Opinion
90% of the zooxanthellae in 90% of the zooxanthellae in bleaching corals have been found bleaching corals have been found
in various stages of cell deathin various stages of cell death
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www.starfish.ch/c-invertebrates/corals.html
Acropora hyacinthus(Acroporidae)
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Zoo2.zool.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~hirose/Marine/corals/porites.htm
Porites solida(Poritidae)
Similar Response to
Same Experimental Treatments
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. Adaptation
- Requires natural selection by these temperature conditions in the evolutionary history of this group
. Exaptation
- Requires that some other physiological trait, previously existing, function known or unknown, serves to enhance temperature tolerance.
Adapatation or Exaptation in the Coral Hosts?
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. Is this temperature adaptation / exaptation restricted to only the zooxanthellate scleractinian corals?
. Does it extend to other coelenterate groups?
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www.korallenfarm.de/Weiche.htm
Sarcophyton ehrenbergi(Alcyoniidae)
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Sarcophyton sp.
bleached
www.ratemyfishtank.com/friendemail.php/13611
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28C30C
32C
34C
36C
34C
28-32C, 36C
Percentage (%)of Cells
Sarcophyton ehrenbergiNecrotic Cells
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Sinularia lochmodes(Alcyoniidae)
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David Robbwww.davidrobb.me.uk/Marine/Invertebrates.htm
Xenia elongata(Xeniidae)
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Could this phenomenon regarding
endosymbiotic zooxanthellae and bleaching
apply to other cnidarians and other phyla
as well?
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http://www.berghia.net/aiptasiaBiology.html
Aiptasia patella(Anthozoa, Actiniaria)
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Aiptasia pallida, bleached
Jessie Kershnerwww.coralscience.org/main/articles/
symbiosis-3/aiptasia-a-bleaching
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Cassiopeia xamachanaScyphozoa
Jonathan Dunderwww.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=833
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http://www.oceanwideimages.com/Large-Image.asp?pID=15969&cID=73&rp=species%252Easp%253Fs%253DCassiopea%2Bxamachana%2526p%253D1
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Ewa Barskacommons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tridacna_gigas_by_Ewa_Barska.jpg
Tricacna gigas(Mollusca, Bivalvia)
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Tricacna gigasBleaching
James W. Fathereewww.advancedaquarist.com/2010/8/inverts
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. Zooxanthellae more sensitive to temperature than theirhosts in scleractinian corals
. Alcyonaceans - Similar to scleractinian corals
. Application to other cnidarians?
- Bleaching, yes
- Greater sensitivity in endosymbionts than hostMost likely.
. Application to zooxanthellate organisms from otherphyla?
- Most likely, yes.
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Are there alternatives to endosymbiotic zooxanthellae?
And will they save the day?
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Didemnum molle (Ascidea, Didemnidae)With symbiotic Prochloron didemni
http://university.uog.edu/botany/474/cyano/prochloron.html
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Lissoclinum patella (Ascidea)with symbiotic cyanobacteria (e.g. Prochloron didemni)
www.eol.org/pages/65008
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Spongilla lacustris (Porifera)with symbiotic Chlorella (Chlorophyceae)
Jim Novakwww.biolib.cz/en/image/id18059/
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Potential Acquisition of Replacement Symbiontse.g., Prochloron or Chlorella
. Would require host to recognize new symbiont immunologically as “self”
. Would require symbiont to recognize new host immunologically as “self”
. Would require new symbiont to be adapted to reproduce inside host tissue, even if only asexually
. Host would have to be adapted to produce nutrients in concentrations acceptable to the symbiont
. Symbiont would have to be adapted to accept nutrients from host – in a balanced manner
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Potential Acquisition of Replacement Symbiontse.g., Prochloron or Chlorella
. Symbiont would have to be adapted to produce O2 and sugars in the right concentrations for the host.
. Host would have to be able to accept O2 and sugars from the symbiont
. Host would have to be able to expel the new symbionts when there was an imbalance in resource transfer or symbiont mortality.
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Has this ever happened before?
Yes.
Three precedents of replacement
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http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-rhizosphere-roots-soil-and-67500617
Ectomycorrhizal fungi replacing arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on tree roots
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https://theaphidroom.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/figure-1_mandrioli_manicardi.jpg
Yeasts replacing Buchnera bacteria in aphids
http://www.kurzweilai.net/how-to-synthesize-a-new-kind-of-yeast-cell-or-person
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http://tolweb.org/onlinecontributors/app?service=external/ViewImageData&sp=30254
http://www.polypompholyx.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/endosymbiotic_matryoshka.png
Endosymbiotic algae replacing plastids in some peridinin dinoflagellates.
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Could such a substitution happen again –
particularly in this case?
. Possible, but tall order.
. Imagine rolling this many dice simultaneously and hoping to come up with all of them yielding the right formula. . Probability exceedingly low.
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http://www.dreamstime.com/stock-illustration-many-dice-large-group-showing-six-points-image42162002
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Oceanic Climatic ZonesToday
http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/images/wsci_01_img0100.jpg
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Poleward Migration of Oceanic Climatic Zones
Expansion of Tropical Zone; Movement of Sub-Tropical, Temperate, and Sub-Polar Zones; Compression of Polar Zones
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Shrinking of
Arctic Polar Cap
and
Permafrost
Boundary
Maps.grida.no/go/graphic/shift-in-climatic-zones-arctic-scenario
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http://www.cryofthewater.org/images/2.jpg
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Predictions (cont.)
. Emergence of a “Hyper-Tropical Oceanic Climatic Zone”
. Decrease in species diversity of corals and other zooxanthellate organisms
- Due to species-specific sensitivity to increasing seawater temperatures
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Possible Emergence of a Hyper-Tropical Zone
Possible introduction of new Hyper-Tropical Zone, and decrease in species of diversity of corals and
other zooxanthellate organisms therein
?
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Predictions (cont.)
. No net gain in coral reef cover with time
- Increase in higher latitudes, but –
- High coral mortality in the warmer regions – lower latitudes
- Probably a decrease in species diversity overall, due to pushing corals to the limits of their distribution and mortality in the hyper-tropical zone.
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http://www.ageekyworld.com/a-must-visit-place-great-barrier-reef/
Thank you
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Predictions
. Latitudinal Expansion of Corals and other temperature- limited zooxanthellate organisms
- e.g., Acropora cervicornis off Broward County, FL
. Similar observations made in Japan
. Latitudinal limits due to light – PAR in winter?
. Adaptation of zooxanthellae for low light levels
- Mesophotic zones
- Deep-water on Jamaican deep reefs
- Probably acclimation to low light levels insufficientafter a point.
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Amphiscolopslangerhansi
(Platyhelmenthes)
Nanozine.blogspot.com/2007_05_01_archive.html
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Coral Bleaching Hotspots(8/27/05)
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http://python2011.globalblogs.org/files/2011/10/dice.jpg
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http://www.getting-positive-karma-now.com/about-the-Nirulas.html
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Implications
Zooxanthellae occur in
hundreds of
marine invertebrate species
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Similar Responses in the
Other two Alcyonacean Species
(with variance)
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http://www.care2.com/causes/5-of-the-worlds-most-endangered-coral-reefs.html
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Outline
I.Coral Reefs and Bleaching – Background
V. Predictions for Extinction of Zooxanthellate Organisms