Human Behavior and the Social Environment:
Individuals and FamiliesSWRK 506
Dr. Linda Farris Kurtz
A series of relatively abstract and general statements that
collectively purport to explain some aspect of the empirical world.
Explains Predicts
Describes Prescribes
Definition of Theory
School Phobia◦Ecological explanation – environment not
nurturing , not attractive, lacks support for child, lacks incentives, harbors disincentives;
◦Freudian explanation – child may be afraid her siblings will take mother away while she’s at school;
◦Behavioral – Staying home is rewarding; school is punishing in some way.
Examples:
Fact is an observable truth, an empirical observation. Example, you passed the test.
Construct – An interpretation that is influenced by culture; an explanatory variable which is not directly observable, example: IQ
Ideology – a set of beliefs based on values rather than facts, world view; example: social Darwinism, communism, laissez-faire economics, and free trade
Facts, Constructs, Ideologies
Points around which an analysis can be made.
Example: Ecological System Framework◦ Micro system - individual◦ Meso system – family and close friends◦ Exo system – local community◦ Macro system- country, nation, economic system
Theoretical Framework
To be empowered, a person or group requires an environment that provides options and ascribes authority to the person to choose. Empowerment is affected by the subjective reality of the person. A person could have many options, but their perception of the options is much more limited.The strengths model is designed to increase each of these components: choices. authority, perception of choices, and ability to take action.
Rapp, C.A.& Gocha, R. J.. (1999). The Strengths Model: A recovery-oriented approach to mental health services. New York: Oxford University Press.
Empowerment
The strengths model is about providing a new perception. It allows us to see possibilities rather than problems, options rather than constraints, wellness rather than sickness.
“As long as we stay in the muck and mire of deficits, we cannot achieve” (p. 33).
Rapp, C.A.& Gocha, R. J.. (1999). The Strengths Model: A recovery-oriented approach to mental health services. New York: Oxford University Press.
The Strengths Model
Problems are located in the stresses created by the interactions between individuals and/or families and groups, organizations, and institutions that make up the environment.
The Ecological Perspective
Uri Bronfenbrenner, Ph.D.Cornell UniversityA Founder of Head Start &Eco Systems Theory
"The ecological perspective uses ecological concepts from biology as a metaphor with which to describe the
reciprocity between persons and their environments...attention is on the goodness of fit between an individual or group and the places in
which they live out their lives"(Sands, 2001).
Sands, R. G. (2001). Clinical Social Work Practice in Behavioral mental Health: A postmodern approach to practice with adults. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
http://ecologicaltheory.tripod.com/
In social work practice, applying an ecological approach can be best understood as looking at persons, families, cultures, communities, and policies and to identify and intervene upon strengths and weaknesses in the transactional processes between these systems. Holistic thinking can provide a paradigm for understanding how systems and their interactions can maintain an individual's behavior.
http://ecologicaltheory.tripod.com/
Microsystem- The most basic system, referring to an individual's most immediate environment (i.e., the
effects of personality characteristics on other family members)
Mesosystem- A more generalized system referring to the interactional
processes between multiple microsystems (i. e., effects of spousal
relationships on parent-child interactions).
Exosystem- Settings on a more generalized level which affect
indirectly, family interactions on the micro and meso levels (i. e., the
effects of parent's employment on family interactions).
Macrosystem- The most generalized forces, affecting individuals and family functioning (i.e., political,
cultural, economical, social).http://ecologicaltheory.tripod.com/
1.Person/environment is the unit of analysis – We most nearly understand a human situation to the extent that we know what relevant people bring to and receive from specific situations in given periods of time.
2.General tendency toward adaptation – Continuous processes people use to sustain the level of fit between themselves and their environment. Goal is adaptedness and goodness of fit.
3.Factors impede adaptation- Ex: Detroit bankruptcy
Basic Assumptions of Ecological Perspective
4. The flow of events may be potentially harmful or helpful. Stress Response Problem solving and regulating negative feelings Coping and defending against stress
5. The transacting configuration – consider all the relevant systems and subsystems that play a part in the mutual adaptation. The includes subsystems of the person and of the environment.
Basic Assumptions Cont’d
Structural considerations – family members and their relationships: father – mother – son – daughter
Developmental considerations – family evolves over a period of time and adds structures, such as the school
Functioning considerations – significant patterns of interaction
Basic Concepts
Goodness of fit – favorable or unfavorable◦ Woman, age 80, moves to her children’s location, and into a
senior living apartment, after selling her home in another state.
Adaptedness and adaptation – actions that contribute to goodness of fit◦ Teen with physical disabilities and high intelligence is
enrolled in a private school where athletics are not emphasized and college preparation is.
Maladaptation: a situation that requires investigation and intervention to improve the P:E fit◦ Homeless family moves into the home of elderly parents,
can’t pay rent, and don’t help parents with household tasks.
Set 1. Person:Environment Fit
Life Events Stressors – event that causes problems Stress – response to stressors Coping and Defending – effective? Not effective? Risk factors, protective and promotive factors?
Smoking or drinking alcohol for example; Protective factors – education, access to help Promotive factors – access to funds Challenges, can be stressors or
Set 3. Functioning under Stress and Challenge
Physical environment – attractiveness, serenity, sidewalks for exercise, parks, local stores and restaurants, highways, transportation, accessible work places
Social environment – groups, formal organizations, libraries, schools, support groups, churches, recreation, handicap access
Culture – values and norms
Environment Perspective
Eco - Map
Joe Blow
AA
Joe’sFamilyParents
and children
Drinking Buddies
Al-Ano
n
In County Jail for DUI
Job as a house Painter
7 day Treatment
Center
Eco-Map
Began in 1913 – John Watson – Father of Behaviorism. Discovered Classical Conditioning.The Little Albert experiment. Conditioned a baby to be afraid of rats. Ex: Pavlov’s dog
Behavioral Theory
When a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with another stimulus which normally elicits a particular response, the neutral stimulus itself will begin to elicit a similar response; this response becomes learned or conditioned.
Classical Conditioning
Respondent behaviors: salivating anxiety
Concept of pairingNeutral stimulus – elicits no responseUnconditioned stimulus – elicits an unlearned responseunlearned response – innateConditioned response – new learned responseConditioned stimulus – by pairing with a stimulus elicits a conditioned response
Respondent Conditioning
Pair the learned fear response with a counter conditioned response – White rat (fear) paired with quiet music (relaxation response)Example of systematic desensitization:Consumer comes with phobia of going outsideTeach relaxationHave her imagine going outside while relaxedGoing outside will lose its anxiety-producing power.
Counter Conditioning
1.Positive reinforcers shape behavior to continue in their presence – dog waits, gets treat – behavior is strengthened/increased2. Withdrawing a positive reinforcer equals punishment – no treat, dog runs off3.Aversive stimulus following a behavior is punishment.4. Withdrawing an aversive stimulus is negative reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
Feelings and behaviors of people are determined by the way they structure their world. Principles:1. Emotions are the result of the way people think,
assume or believe about themselves;2. Misconceptions, irrational thinking, and erroneous
beliefs are outside a person’s conscious awareness;
3. Some thoughts are the result of organic, chemical or neurological problems;
4. Unpleasant emotions are not always dysfunctional and pleasant emotions are not always functional.
Cognitive Theory
Albert Bandura (1980s). The cognitive deals with thinking; the behavior deals with doing something. Used to be called social learning theory.Requisites for learning:Attention – be awareRetention – rehearsal Production – converting stored memory into actionMotivation – incentives to behave in a new way
Cognitive Behavioral Theory
Modeling Identification Vicarious Learning – by example Self Efficacy – believing you are able Self reinforcement
Key Concepts in Cognitive Behavioral Theory
Schemata originate in childhood experience and are generalizations stored in memory. An example: an expectation that one’s desire for emotional support will not be met –emotional deprivation schemata.Cognitive distortions – automatic thoughts consisting of mistakes in thinking. Example: All or nothing thinking – if I’m not a total success, I’m a failure.
Cognitive Schemata and Cognitive Distortions
Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy- person is taught to disengage from emotional-related modes of mind by responding differently to a negative emotion. Recovery International methods, for example.
Dialectical Behavioral Therapy – Combines validation with problem solving
Acceptance and commitment therapy – instead of controlling thoughts and feelings, client is taught to notice and embrace them. Accept – Choose – Take action
Three New Approaches to Social Learning Theory
Originated by Sigmund Freud, this theory maintains that: 1. early childhood experiences form
personality, 2. that there exists a powerful unconscious,3. that personality is influenced by the id,
ego and superego, and 4. that defense mechanisms protect us from
anxiety.
Psychodynamic Theory
This theory, originating with Anna Freud, comes under the general category of psychodynamic theory and concerns intra-psychic functioning. The ego is the part of the intra-psychic structure that helps one adapt, meet needs, master tasks, and mediate the unconscious and conscious structures. Important also are the ego defense mechanisms
Ego Psychology Branch of Psychodynamic Theory
People have an innate capacity to adapt, which develops over time through learning and psychosocial maturation
Social influences on psychological functioning are significant, transmitted through the family
Mastery and competence are important motivators Problems in social functioning can occur at any
stage of development due to person-environment and internal conflicts.
From Walsh, J. (2006). Theories for direct social work practice.
Ego Psychology – Major Concepts
Defenses protect the conscious ego from anxiety that may be painful or overwhelming. The defense converts an unacceptable action to something acceptable.Example: Projection – my anger is unacceptable – “I don’t get angry.” When anger arises between me and someone else, I see it as their anger not mine.
Ego Defense Mechanisms
Autonomous Functions of the Ego
Reality Testing (awareness of time, place, person
Understanding of cause and effect relationships
Using good judgment in achieving goals
Control of drives, emotions, and impulses
Attention Memory Adaptation Coping Able to manage
relationships and relate appropriately
Having a sense of self
Major Concepts◦ Attachment is the main focus◦ Relationships – fears of engulfment or abandonment◦ Process of Introjection
introjects parts of others Whole objects – introjects the whole person Self Object – conception of the self
True Self – realistic conception of self False Self – suppresses personal needs – attempt to please
◦ Object constancy – when object is not present, it’s still there
Object Relations Theory: A Sub-theory of Ego Psychology
Winnicott – 1950 – 1971much of his work was published after his deathConcepts
◦ Facilitative environment – adapts to needs of infant
◦ Good enough mothering – holding, handling, withdrawing gradually from child
◦ Transitional object – Gives sense of mother◦ Stages of dependence – independence◦ Ego relatedness – capacity to be alone
Donald Winnicott 1896 - 1971
◦ Separation and individuation◦ Clear stages of separation and individuation
Birth-3 months: Autism, no difference between self and outside world
1- 5 mo: symbiosis – other exists to meet needs 5 – 8 mo: Differentiation – awareness of difference from
other 8-16 mo: Practicing – brief periods of separation 16-24 mo: Rapprochement – child can exist but can call
for help 24-36 mos: Object Constancy -
◦ Object constancy final stage of separation
Margaret Mahler - 1975The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a mental health condition in which a person has long-term patterns of unstable relationships and turbulent emotions.
Narcissistic personality disorder is a condition in which people have an excessive sense of self-importance, an extreme preoccupation with themselves, and lack of empathy for others.
Borderline and Narcissistic Personality Disorders
Projective Identification – individual projects unconscious parts of self (angry feeling) or others onto the other person (spouse; partner)
Splitting – others are seen as either all good or all bad. Student gets low score on test – instructor is horrible; gets a high score – instructor is wonderful.
Projective Identification and Splitting
Choose either ego psychology or object relations assessment frameworks.
Appoint one member of your group to be the individual being assessed
Pick out some of the problem behaviors/symptoms for the “client” part to portray.
Appoint one person to be the social worker. Help her to come up with questions for the role play.
Role Play Exercise
Birth – 2: Rapid growth muscles & brain 2 – 6: language; permanent teeth 7 – 11: differences in gender development 12 -15: pubescence, sex organs develop 16 - 18: Sex organs mature, growth slows 18 – 35: Reach adult size; high point in vigor 35 – 60: Midlife, declines begin, menopause 60 – 70: skin wrinkles, sensory loss, lower
endurance; stiff joints, decreased muscle tone 70 – death: rapid deterioration, loss of motor
skills
Physical and Biological Stages of Life
Oral Stage: birth – 8 months. Fixation may lead to overeating, nail biting, dependency
Anal Stage: 18 months to 3 years; fixation leads to anal retentive or anal expulsive traits
Phallic Stage: 3 – 6 years. Child identifies with same sex parent.
Latency Stage: 6 – puberty. Sexual desires are repressed; friendships with same sex peers;
Genital Stage: begins at puberty; Hormonal changes, explores attraction to opposite sex.
Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory
Birth – 1: Trust vs. Mistrust - hope2-3: Autonomy v. shame and doubt - will3-5: Initiative v. guilt - purpose6-12: Industry v. inferiority - competence12-18: Identity v. role confusion - fidelity20s: Intimacy v. Isolation - love20s-50s Generativity v. stagnation - careAfter 50: Integrity v. despair - wisdom
Erikson’s Stages
Early adulthood: Select mate, find a reference group and occupation, begin family;
30-60 years: Assist children, relate to spouse, achieve adult responsibility, establish a standard of living, accept middle age;
60 on: Adjust to health decline, retirement and reduced income, adjust to spouse’s health decline and death, affiliating with age group, adapt social role changes, attain satisfactory living arrangements
Havighurst’s Adult Life Cycle Tasks
Four ErasChildhood and adolescence – to age 17Early adulthood – 22-40Middle adulthood – 45-60Late Adulthood – 65+
Three life transitionsEarly adult – 17-22Mid-life – 40-45Late adult – 60-65
Levinson’s Seasons of Man’s Life
“Demand that this president leave town, to get up, to put the Quran down, to get up off his knees, and to … come out with his hands up.”
• Pre-encounter – Idealizes whiteness, sees the world as whites do.
• Encounter – develops a black identity
• Immersion-emersion – intense attachment to black culture
• Internalization – Inner security with black identity, accepts other races, pluralist
• Adapted from Parks, E., Carter, R., & Gushue, G. (1996). At the crossroads: racial and womanist identity development in black and white women. Journal of Counseling & Development,74(6), 624-631.
Cross’s Model of African-American Identity Development
• Assimilation: cultural uniqueness of the minority abandoned and they try to blend into the dominant culture.
• Accommodation: Follows norms of the dominant culture only in specific circumstances
• Acculturation: Groups with multiple backgrounds interact and they blend cultural preferences
• Bicultural socialization: non-majority group members master both cultures and acquire a dual identity.
Ethnic Identity Development
• Contact , naiveteˊ, lack of awareness• Disintegration – awareness, confusion, guilt• Reintegration – identifies whites as superior• Pseudo-independence – limited tolerance• Immersion-emersion – hyper vigilance• Autonomy – achieves a non-racist white
identity
White Identity Development
• Stage 1: Identity confusion – Who am I?• Stage 2: Identity comparison – I am
different• Stage 3. Identity tolerance – I’m probably
gay • Stage 4. Identity acceptance – I am gay• Stage 5. Identity pride – being gay is who I
am• Stage 6. Identity synthesis – psychological
integration
Gay Lesbian Identity Development
• Consciousness, attitudes, salience – ability to articulate the meaning of social class
• Referent groups – those who help guide the development of worldview (family, etc)
• Property relationships – materials that people value and use to define themselves
• Lifestyle – The way you choose to organize your time and resources
• Behaviors – Learned and socialized actions that reinforce a person’s social class worldview
Domains of Social Class Worldview
People use Top and Bottom parts of brain in different ways; Four groups that use top and bottom differently.• Top and bottom both used: Plan, act, and see• Bottom used more than top: Perceptive, make sense of things
they see• Top used, bottom not: Planful but do not follow through to see
and adjust to results• Neither top or bottom used: People are responsive and action
oriented and go with the flow
From: Steven M. Kosslyn & G. Wayne Miller (2013).Top Brain, Bottom Brain: Surprising insights into how you think. Reviewed in the Wall St. Journal, Oct. 21, 2013
Parts of the Brain: Top and Bottom
AxonsNeurotransmittersSynapseReceptors
EndorphinesCortisolAcetylcholineSerotoninAdrenalinNoradrenalineCatecholamine's NorepinephrineDopamine
Neurotransmitters
• The nervous system activates neural firing in response to a stimulus. Experience creates structural changes in the brain called neuroplasticity.
• Mindful awareness promotes neuroplasticity. Development of the brain depends on experiences.
Neuroplasticity
Genetics determine many things, however, experience determines which, how, and when genes are expressed.
Experience, gene expression, mental activity, behavior and continued interactions with the environment are linked, making nature and nurture inextricably bound (Lesser & Pope, 2011, p.38)
Brain Experience & Use Dependent
1. Learning Disorders◦ ADHD◦ Executive Function◦ Nonverbal learning disabilities◦ Asperger’s disorder• Motor Problems
2. Brain-Based DisordersoAutismoMental retardationo Tourette’s syndromeoGenetic disordersoHead injuries
Neurobehavioral Disorders: Largest Category
• Depressive disorders• Major Depressive Disorder- single episode• Major Depressive Disorder- recurrent• Dysthymic Disorder
• Bipolar disorders• Bipolar I• Bipolar II• Dysthymic disorder
Mood Disorders
• Panic disorder without agoraphobia• Panic disorder with agoraphobia• Specific phobia• Social anxiety disorder• Obsessive compulsive disorder• Generalized anxiety disorder• Acute stress disorder• Posttraumatic stress disorder
Anxiety Disorders
Schizophrenia – lasts at least 6 months, gross disorganization, delusions, hallucinations
Schizophrenoform disorder – symptoms with no decline in functioning
Schizoaffective disorder – with mood disorderBrief psychotic disorder – from 1 day to 1monthDelusional disorder – non bizarre delusionPsychotic disorder due to medical conditionSubstance-induced psychotic disorder
Major Psychotic Disorders
Person:environment goodness of fit. Is there adaptation or maladaptation? What external or internal stressors exist? Developmental factors – age related tasks Risk Factors – disability, drinking alcohol,
smoking Challenges – positive and growth enhancing Environmental factors – Assess them
Ecological Assessment Framework
Start with the theory: I am applying the Ecological Perspective to my individual because it addresses the fit between the person and environment and examines the way that the person has adapted to a stressful life event (Germain & Bloom, 1999).
Go to case: Mr B’s environment is no longer suitable for his needs. He has been unable to adapt to living alone after his wife’s death.
Give an example: For example, Mr. B needs assistance in taking care of daily tasks such as bathing, dressing, and preparing food.
Writing Sample
1. Inventory problematic behaviors;2. Identify reinforcements for the problem
behavior;3. Identify desired replacement behavior or
changes required in behavior;4. Identify likely reinforcements for desired
behavior (include rewards, punishments, removal of reinforcers)
Framework for AssessmentOperant Conditioning Approach
Problematic behaviors Children refusing to pick up toys Children not coming when called Children whining in grocery store
Reinforcements for problem behavior Mother picks up toys for them Parents do not notice or punish when they refuse Whining in store gets attention and rewarded
Desired replacement behavior Picking up toys daily Coming when called Not whining in store
Identify likely reinforcements for desired behavior Mother picks up toys and locks toys up in closet When don’t come when called, grounded the rest of the week When do come, get special dessert Mother will ignore whining and not reward it If no whining in store, will get to pick out a reward at checkout counter
Example: Operant Conditioning Assessment
Identify the behavior and thinking changes needed by the individual;
Assess the person’s cognitive processes; Assess self efficacy; Identify cognitive schema and cognitive
distortions experienced; Assess for available role models and other
learning opportunities.
Framework for Cognitive Behavioral Assessment
Thinking change needed: Jane Doe dwells on the past and all the mistakes she has made. These include…
Cognitive processes: Jane has normal intelligence and memory functions.
Self-Efficacy – Jane feels unsure of herself and her ability to do well in any endeavor. Does not know how to cope with her depression.
Cognitive schema – Jane feels a pervasive sense of shame over her past mistakes and inability to measure up.
Distortions – Disqualifies and discounts positive achievements in her past.
Jane’s friends and relatives are high achievers; she has no role models among those who may have made similar mistakes in the past.
Example: Cognitive-Behavioral Assessment
Shows ability to cope with stress – ask about stressful situations and how they coped.
Shows good reality testing – what is going on around you.
Shows good judgment in situations – learn from taking social history.
Thinks logically – assess from conversation. Able to attend, learn, and concentrate – get
educational history. Maintains mature interpersonal relationships –
gets along with family, friends, co-workers.
Framework for Assessing Ego Strength
Coping ability: Mr. X. comes to the agency complaining of not being able to sleep, eat, or concentrate at work.Reality testing: Mr X thinks his ex-wife is out to get him by sending people to spy on him at work and trying to get him in trouble.Judgment: Mr. X has complained about this to his employer who now is concerned about whether Mr X can do his job.Logical thinking: Mr X recognizes that the story he’s telling makes no sense, but it still preys on his mind.Attention and concentration: Up until recently, Mr X showed normal ability to attend, concentrate and learn having earned a master’s degree in a complex subject.Interpersonal Relationships: Mr. X has good relationships with family members and co-workers, but has few friends.
Example: Ego psychology Assessment
Does the individual maintain positive relationships with significant others?
Does the individual have hostile interactions with significant others as he or she did with people in the past?
Does the individual establish relationships today that repeat early experiences with parents?
Do the individuals problem behaviors represent efforts to master old traumas?
To what degree are the client’s behaviors accurate renditions of what occurred in childhood? Are memories distorted?
Assessment Framework –Object Relations
John Miller (pseudonym) is a 45 year old Caucasian male. At this age, he is declining physically and not able to work at heavy lifting and construction work, which has been his occupation.
According to Levinson’s theory of adult life stages, he is in middle adulthood and just past the mid-life crisis. He is married and the father of one teenage daughter. At this age he should be finding meaning in life and mentoring others. This has been hard for him because the poor economy has left him out of work and living with his parents due to homelessness. He should be planning for retirement, but his economic situation…………
Assessing Life Stage In Paper
Assess the individual’s racial identity; if non-white what stage of identity development has he or she attained?
Assess social class status and class aspirations Gender and sexual identity. Ethnicity – are there ethnic groups that the
individual grew up with, currently belongs to? What is the extent of the individual’s acculturation/assimilation with the dominant culture?
Framework for Assessment of Cultural, Racial, Gender Identity
Assess for neurobehavioral disordersAutism spectrum?Mental retardationAttention deficit disorderADHD
Assess intellectual functioningNormalBelow NormalAbove Normal
Assess for Psychiatric disordersMood disorderAnxiety disorderPsychotic disorderAre any of these successfully medicated?
Framework for Neurobiological Assessment