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AStudyonHybridCars:EnvironmentalEffectsandConsumerHabits
AnInteractiveQualifyingProjecttobesubmittedtothefacultyofWorcesterPolytechnicInstituteinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsfortheDegreeofBachelorofScience.
SubmittedBy:MichaelBeliveauJamesRehbergerJonathanRowellAlyssaXarras
Submittedto:ProjectAdvisor:
Prof.ChickeryKasouf
Submitted:28April2010
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TableofContentsListofFigures................................................................................................................................................ 4
Abstract......................................................................................................................................................... 5
ExecutiveSummary....................................................................................................................................... 6
Chapter1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 9
Chapter2. LiteratureReview................................................................................................................ 12
2.1EnvironmentalEffects....................................................................................................................... 12
2.2Emissions........................................................................................................................................... 14
2.3ProductionofCars............................................................................................................................. 16
2.3.1ProductionEmissions................................................................................................................. 16
2.3.2ProductionEnergyConsumption............................................................................................... 20
2.3.3
RawMaterials
and
Recycling
..............................................................................................
23
2.4ConsumerBehaviorandMarketingStrategy.................................................................................... 24
2.5Widespreadchangetohybrid/electricinsteadofgasoline/diesel................................................... 34
2.6Conclusion......................................................................................................................................... 34
Chapter3. Methodology....................................................................................................................... 36
3.1QuantitativeDataAnalysis................................................................................................................ 36
3.1.1 EnergyConsumptionCalculations...................................................................................... 36
3.1.2 BreakevenCalculations....................................................................................................... 37
3.2ConsumerAttitudesandSelling........................................................................................................ 38
3.2.1InterviewwithaCarSalesperson............................................................................................... 39
3.3FocusGroups..................................................................................................................................... 40
3.3.1Peoplewhoboughtahybridinthepastyear............................................................................ 41
3.3.2Peoplewhoboughtanewcar(nonhybrid)inthepastyear.................................................... 41
Chapter4. Findings............................................................................................................................... 43
4.1EmissionsandEfficiency................................................................................................................... 43
4.1.1Energy
Consumption
for
Manufacturing
Vehicles
.....................................................................
43
4.1.2CO2EmissionsResultingManufacturingVehicles...................................................................... 44
4.4.3BreakEvenPoints....................................................................................................................... 45
4.2PublicsViewonPurchasingVehicles................................................................................................... 48
4.3SalesApproach:................................................................................................................................. 52
4.4Incentives.......................................................................................................................................... 53
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4.5FeasibilityofMassConversion.......................................................................................................... 54
Chapter5. Conclusions......................................................................................................................... 56
AppendixA:FocusGroupTranscript.......................................................................................................... 59
Bibliography:............................................................................................................................................... 85
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ListofFiguresFigure1:TransportationAirQuality:SelectedFactsandFigures2002...................................................... 15
Figure2:CO2Emissions(kgC)ResultingfromtheProductionofAutomobileComponentsfromVirgin
Materialsforallvehiclesconsideredinthisstudy,bymaterial.................................................................. 18
Figure3:CO2Emissions(kgC)ResultingfromtheProductionofAutomobileComponentsfrom
SecondaryMaterialsforallvehiclesconsideredinthisstudy,bymaterial................................................ 19
Figure4:EnergyUseinVehicleProduction(inMJperkgofmaterial)...................................................... 20
Figure5:VehicleMass(inkg)byMaterialforallVehiclesConsideredinThisStudy................................. 22
Figure6:TopFourteenReasonsPeopleBuyHybrids.Source:RoadandTravelMagazine,June24,2009.
.................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Figure7:FederalTaxCreditsforHybrids.................................................................................................... 32
Figure8:CalculationSpreadsheetforEnergyConsumption...................................................................... 37
Figure9:BreakevenPointEquation............................................................................................................ 38
Figure10:EnergyConsumptionforManufacturingVehicles..................................................................... 44
Figure11:CO2EmissionsResultingManufacturingVehicles...................................................................... 45
Figure12:BreakevenPointforthe2010FordFusion............................................................................... 46
Figure13:BreakevenPointforthe2010FordEscape............................................................................... 47
Figure14:BreakevenPointfortheToyotaHighlander............................................................................. 48
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Abstract
Thispaperfocusedonhybridvehicletechnologyanditsintegrationintosociety. The
encompassingissueansweredinthisprojectwaswhetherhybridsmeettheexpectationsfor
environmentalbenefitssuggestedbymanypeople. Researchwasdoneistheareasoftypesof
hybrids,consumertrends,andthefutureofhybridtechnology. Hybridproductionand
efficiencydatawereanalyzedtoexaminethetechnicalaspectsofthetechnology. Afocus
groupofpeoplewhorecentlyboughtcars,bothhybridsandnonhybrids,revealedwhat
consumerslookforintheircars. Analysisoftheneedsofhybridtechnologyhelpeddetermine
howfeasiblewidespreadchangetohybridswouldbeinfuture. Withallinformationtakeninto
account,weconcludedthathybridshaveseveraldrawbacksthatoffsettheirfuelefficiency.
Theirhigherpricebothturnsconsumersawayandmakesthevehiclesalessattractive
economicinvestment. Energyefficientprocessingtechniquesneedtobedevelopedbeforethe
advancedmaterialsinhybridscanhelpaddtotheircleanimage. Widespreadchangeto
advancedhybridtechnologiesisnotafeasibleoptioninthenearfuturebecauseofbothcost
andthelimitedamountofhybridsontheroadtoday. Overall,hybridtechnologyhasalotof
potentialinthedistantfuture,butasforrightnowtheyarenotasignificantimprovementover
todays
internal
combustion
engine.
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ExecutiveSummary
ThisInteractiveQualifyingProjectfocusedontheeveradvancinghybridvehicle
technologyanditsintegrationintosociety. Societyhasbeenmakingalargeefforttomake
everythinggreenandcleanerintodaysworld,includingtransportation. Advertisementshave
ledpeopletobelievethathybridcarspolluteless,willsavemoneyandreducedependenceon
naturalfuelsources. Theencompassingquestionansweredinthispaperwas;dohybridslive
uptoexpectationsthatsocietyhassuggestedoftheminthepastdecade?
Thepushtodevelopgreentechnologiesstemsfromthefactthattheearths
atmosphereisrapidlychanging. Thischangeislargelyduetohumanactivity;industry,
transportation,waste,andeverydayliving. Everydaylargeamountsofpollutantsarereleased
intotheatmosphereleadingthegreenhouseeffectandglobalwarming. Thisglobalwarming
cancausemajorissuessuchasthemeltingofpolaricecapsandariseinsealevel,whichinturn
wouldcauseintensefloodinginmostifnotallcoastlineareas,givingcausetootherdisasters
suchasmasserosions,mudslides,outbreaksofdiseasetomorehumidclimates,coastal
reformation,andotherdisasters.Givenenoughtime,asteadyincreaseofthesegasseswould
alsochangethelengthandintensityoftheseasons,createdroughts,andincreasethe
frequencyandimpactoflargestorms. Conjoinedeffortsarebeingmadebycountriesto
understandthisgrowingdilemma,andscientistsaretryingtotheorizewaystoslowitseffects.
Industryplaysalargeroleintheamountofemissionsthatarereleasedintothe
atmosphere. Everyvehiclemanufacturedproducesemissions,bothwhilebeingmadeand
whiledrivingontheroad. Theseemissionsincludenitrogengas(N2),carbondioxide(CO2),
watervapor(H2O),carbonmonoxide(CO),hydrocarbonsorvolatileorganiccompounds
(VOCs),andnitrogenoxides(NOandNO2,togethercalledNOx).1 Regulationshavebeenplaced
onindustriestotryandreducetheamountofpollutantsreleasedintotheatmosphere,but
furtherstepsneedtobetaken. Energyconsumptionbyindustries,inthemanufacturingof
products,alsoleadstopollutants. Whetheroil,coal,nuclear,orevenwaterorwindpoweris
usedtocreateenergy,harmfulbyproductsarestillproduced.1Randy2009
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Peoplebuynewcarsforavarietyofreasons,sometimesoutofnecessity,sometimesfor
vanity,andsometimesforfun. Buyingacarisabiginvestmentandrequirestheconsideration
ofmanydifferentvariables. Peoplelookintoprice,performance,safety,andreliabilitywhen
searchingforanewcar. Withthegrowinginterestinsavingourplanet,manycompanieshave
createdhybridcarsandthegovernmentisdevelopingincentiveprograms. Thesefactorshave
enticedmanypeopletoconsiderbuyingthesevehicles.
Withmanytypesofhybridtechnologyavailablethereismuchinterestinwidespread
conversiontohybridtransportation. Withsuchamassiveworldpopulationandhigh
dependencyontransportation,asignificantswitchtohybridsfromgasolineanddieselvehicles
mustbemetbeforeanychangescanbeseen. Thiscouldmeanconvertingallofourgas
stations;possiblytoelectricpluginstationsorhydrogenfillupstations. Awidespreadchange
tohybridsrequiresanextendedperiodoftimeandalsomaynotbecosteffective. Manyofthe
outcomesarenotworthallthatgoesintogettingtheadvancedtechnologyontheroad.
Afterextensiveresearchwedecidedtofocusoncarproduction,efficiency,whatthings
peopletakeintoconsiderationwhenbuyingacar,andwhatcurrentpurchasingtrendsare. To
dothisweanalyzedemissions,energyandmaterialdataallowingustocompareenergy
consumptionvalues,emissionlevels,andvehicleefficiency. Thisdatawasthengraphedto
draw
conclusions.
Focus
groups
were
organized,
for
both
people
that
bought
hybrids
and
non
hybrids,togatherconsumerpurchasinginformation. Aninterviewwasconductedwithalocal
cardealershipownertodiscusshybridmarketingstrategies.
Thedatasuggestedthattheproductionofhybridsconsumesmoreenergyandreleases
moreemissionsthantheproductionofconventionalcars. Thisismostlybecauseofthe
advancedmaterialsthatarerequiredinhybrids. Itwasalsodeterminedthathybridsarenota
greatinvestmentfortheconsumer. Forahybridtobreakevenwiththehigherpricea
consumer
will
have
to
drive
primarily
in
the
city
and
for
more
miles
than
the
average
person
keepsacarfor.
Focusgroupparticipantsindicatedthatthereareavarietyofdifferentreasonsfor
individualstopurchasenewvehicles. Themostprominentdecidingfactorswererelatedto
lifestyle;havingtodowithfamilynecessities,dailycommute,differentpersonalactivities,or
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weatherconditions. Anothermajordecidingfactorforpurchasinganewvehiclewas
affordability. Theinterviewwiththelocalcardealerverifiedthattheircurrentlyisnotmuchof
amarketforhybridvehicles
Wemadeseveralconclusionsabouthybridvehicles. Wefoundthathybridvehicles
createmuchmoreemissionintheirproduction,beforeevenbeingdriven,insomecases
consuminguptofourtimestheenergy. Althoughhybridcarstypicallyachievebettergas
mileage,theyareinitiallymuchmoreexpensivethanconventionalvehicles. Iftheincreased
initialcostofahybridistoomuch,theinvestmentwillbeveryhardtobreakevenwith. Hybrids
mustbedriventohighmileagesincertainconditionstoreallybeworthpayingfor;these
mileagesareoftenmanytimeshigherthantheaveragemileagethataconsumerkeepstheircar
for. Inourfocusgroupofnonhybridvehicles,theadditionalinvestmentofahybridcarwas
oftenadecidingfactoragainstpurchasingahybridvehicle. Othersinthenonhybridfocus
groupwereunabletofindhybridvehiclesthatfittherequirementsthatwerenecessaryto
accommodatetheirlifestyles. Thosethatpurchasedhybridvehicleswereoftendoingsoasa
statementabouttheirconcernandeffortstosavingtheenvironment. Industryneedstofind
cleanerandmoreefficientwayofproducinglightweightmaterialssuchasaluminumand
carbonfiber,whichisusedinthecarbodies. Moreeffectiveandincreasedlevelsofrecycling
would
lead
to
much
lower
energy
consumption
and
would
add
to
the
clean
image
of
hybrids.
Hybridvehiclesneedtobeutilizedinsituationsthatwillbenefitthemostfromthem,suchas
publictransportation. Itcanalsobeconcludedthatwidespreadimplementationofhybrid
technologyisnotfeasibleatthistime. Theproductionofequallyefficienthybridvehiclesisnot
greatenoughtocompetewithnonhybrids,botheconomicallyandnumerically.
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Chapter 1. IntroductionAsmoderncultureandtechnologycontinuetodevelop,thegrowingpresenceofglobal
warmingandirreversibleclimatechangedrawsincreasingamountsofconcernfromtheworlds
population.Earthsclimateisbeginningtotransform,provenbythefrequentseverestorms,
thedrasticshrinkingofpolaricecapsandmountainglaciers,theincreasedamountofflooding
incoastalareas,andlongerdroughtsinaridsectionsoftheworld. Therearelargeholesinthe
ozonelayeroftheearthsatmosphereandsmoglevelsareeverincreasing,leadingto
decreasedairquality2.Itistruethatnaturalcausessuchasgeothermalventsandvolcanic
hotspotsarepartoftheglobalwarmingproblembutmanyoftheissuesarestillaresultofthe
massivequantitiesofgreenhousegassesthattheworldspopulationhasproducedinthepast
fewcenturies. Ithasonlybeenwithinthepastfewdecadesthatmodernsocietyhasactually
takennoticeofthesechangesanddecidedthatsomethingneedstochangeiftheglobal
warmingprocessistobestopped,orevenslowedatthispointintime.Countriesaroundthe
worldareworkingtodrasticallyreduceCO2emissionsaswellasotherharmfulenvironmental
pollutants.Everythingfromcarsandindustriestolivestockandcropsarebeingstudiedand
regulatedwithplansofminimizingpollutionlevels.
Amongstthemostnotableproducersofthesepollutantsareautomobiles,whichare
almostexclusivelypoweredbyinternalcombustionenginesandspewoutunhealthyemissions.
Carsandtrucksareresponsibleforalmost25%ofCO2emission,andothermajortransportation
methodsaccountforanother12%.3 Withaglobalpopulationinexcessofsixbillion,andover
50%ofwhomliveinurbanareasandrelyontransportationtocontributetosociety.Inthe
opinionofmany,carsarealargecontributortourbanpollutionslevelsand,inthebigger
picture,globalwarming. Withimmensequantitiesofcarsontheroadtoday,purecombustion
enginesarequicklybecomingatargetofglobalwarmingblame. Internalcombustionengines
accountforalotofthepollutionproblems,buttheissuestillstandsastowhatsystemwilldrive
thenextwaveofautomotivevehicles.
Onepotentialalternativetotheworldsdependenceonstandardcombustionengine
vehiclesarehybridcars.Hybrids,liketheirnamesuggests,arevehiclesthatutilizemultiple
2Shanklin2009
3Hopwoodetal.2009
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formsoffueltopowertheirengines.Inthemajorityofmodernhybrids,carsarepoweredbya
combinationoftraditionalgasolinepowerandtheadditionofanelectricmotor. Inthissortof
hybridengine,thecombustionengineisusedathighspeedsforlongdistances,suchasthe
highway,andtheelectricengineatlowspeedsandshortdistances,suchasinurbanareas.By
incorporatingalternativeenergydrivetrainsintovehiclesthatalsousecombustionengines,
theyallowforaslightlycleanermodeoftransportation.Hybridshowever,dostillusethe
petroleumbasedenginewhiledrivingsotheyarenotcompletelyclean,justcleanerthan
petroleumonlycars.Thisenableshybridcarstohavethepotentialtosegueintonew
technologiesthatrelystrictlyonalternatefuelsources.
Justascombustionenginesarestillbeingimproved,alternatefuelbasedtechnologies
aremakingadvancementsaswell.Automotivecompaniesarecurrentlyinproductionofstrictly
electriccarsalongwithmanymoredesignsthatarestillintheprototypestages.Alternative
fuels,suchashydrogen,naturalgas,andbiodieselareextensivelystudiedandexploredin
hopesofwidespreadfutureimplementationintosociety.However,manyofthesealternative
fuelswillrequirefartoomanyresourcesfortheworldspopulationtofullyconverttowithin
thenearfuture,ifatall. Fuelcellswouldrequireacompletereinventionoftheautomobile,not
tomentionthenation'sgasstations,andthetechnologytoputthemontheroadisstillalong
way
from
fruition.
4
As
is
the
case
with
many
alternative
fuel
sources,
a
great
amount
of
time
andmoneywouldhavetobespenttochangethecurrentgasstationssothattheyare
alternativefuelcompatible.
Theintroductionofhybridtechnologyinthepastdecadewasthefirststeptowards
turningtheworldspopulationintoamorefuelefficientandemissionsconscioussociety.There
aredifferentclaims,however,astohowhelpfulhybridsactuallyareintheracetosavethe
environment,withprojectionsrangingfromsignificantlytomarginally. Somesourcessay
hybrid
cars
cause
significantly
less
damage
to
the
environment
than
the
current
standard
combustionenginedrivetrain,whileothersarguethatifonelooksatgrowthprojectionsforoil
consumption,hybridswillslowthegrowthrateofoilimportsonlymarginally,atbest,withthe
4Hakim2005
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amountdependingonhowmanyhybridsaresold.5 Manypeoplethinkthathybridsareakey
answertomanyofthegreenhousegasissues;howevertheyareoverlookingthegreaterpicture
regardingthesubjectofthehybridsthemselves.Themanufacturingofthesecarsandthe
natureofalltheadvancedelectronicsinthemmayconflictwiththegreenerimagetheypose.
Hybridsarecleanerontheroadbuttheirproductionmaynotbeableboastthesamestandard.
Tofullyknowifhybridsgivemorethantheytake,onewouldneedtolookintoenergy
consumptionandemissionsbefore,duringandaftertheirlifeontheroad.
Ourgoalwastoinvestigatetheoveralleffectsontheenvironmentduetohybridcars
whencomparedtotheircompetition. Bycomparingtheirmanufacturingprocesses,their
functioninmodernsociety,andconsumerbehaviortowardsthem,wegainedabetter
understandingofhybridvehiclesandtheireffectontheenvironment. Theresultofanalyzing
thefulllifeofacar,bothfromtechnicalandconsumerstandpointsleadustomanyquestions
aboutthesignificanceofhybridtechnology. Thisallowedustodetermineabetterapproach
withfutureconversionfromcombustionenginestonewerpropulsionsystems. Thispaper
includesourconclusionsonhowtobestapproachthefutureofhybridcars,botheconomically
andresourcefully,andalsogivesourfinalverdictontheefficiencyofthehybridcar,notonlyas
analternativetocombustionenginesintermsofenvironmentalimpact,butfromafinancial,
economic,
and
social
standpoint
as
well.
5Hakim2005
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Chapter 2. LiteratureReviewTherehasbeenmuchwrittenabouthybridtechnologyandalternateenergydrivetrains
inthepastdecade. Thereareargumentsbothforandagainstalmostanysubjectinthelarge
topic.
Inour
pursuit
of
fully
understanding
this
new
technology
and
its
impacts
we
explored
muchofthisinformationandtrytoapplyittoourproject. Weseparatedthisinformationinto
categoriesincludingenvironmentaleffects,emissions,carproduction,andconsumerand
marketingtrends.
2.1EnvironmentalEffects
Thefearthatmankindhasbeentamperingwiththeearthsecosysteminirreparable
wayshasbeenaroundformanyyears,whetheritbedrivenbyreligionorscience.Yetithas
onlybeenrecentlythatsuchfearsnotonlyhavebeenjustified,butbeenprovenaswell.There
isanincreaseinanxietyaboutthecurrentglobalsituationastheaverageglobaltemperature
slowly,butsteadilyincreases.
Alargeportionoftheprobableecologicalharmhasbeenassociatedwiththechangein
theatmosphereofourplanetandhowthechangeinclimateisaffectedbywhatmodernday
societycurrentlyconsidersstandardactivity.Humansareconstantlyaddingharmfulgases,
commonlyknownasgreenhousegases,totheatmosphereatanalarmingandextremely
harmfulpace.Whilemanyofthegassesthatarereleasedintotheatmosphere,suchascarbon
dioxide,arenaturallyoccurringcompounds,thereareothersthataremostlymanmade,in
particularchlorofluorocarbons(CFCs),whichsupplytheenvironmentwithextragreenhouse
gases.6 Greenhousegassesarecalledassuchbecausetheytrapheatinsidetheearths
atmosphereeffectivelyprotectingandinsulatingit,whichinmostcasesisagoodthing.
However,ifthereistoomuchofthesegasses,thentheoverallsurfacetemperatureofthe
planetwillriseasmoreheatistrappedin.Itisthisreactionthatiscausingthedistinctclimate
changethatweareseeingtoday,appropriatelylabeledasglobalwarming.
Thisglobalwarmingcancausemajorissuessuchasthemeltingofpolaricecapsanda
riseinsealevel,whichinturnwouldcauseintensefloodinginmostifnotallcoastlineareas,
6Desonie2002
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givingcausetootherdisasterssuchasmasserosions,mudslides,outbreaksofdiseasetomore
humidclimates,coastalreformation,andotherdisasters.Givenenoughtime,asteadyincrease
ofthesegasseswouldalsochangethelengthandintensityoftheseasons,createdroughts,and
increasethefrequencyandimpactoflargestorms.Organizationsaroundtheworldsuchasthe
IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)examinethepotentialcausesandeffectsof
humanrelatedclimatechange,andattempttounderstandtheimpactsthroughnational
inventoriesandotherfindings.7
Conjoinedeffortsarebeingmadebycountriestounderstandthisgrowingdilemma,as
wellascountriesconductingtheirownindividualresearch.NationalgroupsliketheU.S.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),alsoestablishregulationstohelpreducegreenhouse
gasemissions.
AccordingtotheEPA,theaveragesurfacetemperatureoftheEarthhasincreasedby
about1.2Fto1.4Finthepastonehundredyears. Expertspredictthattheaveragecould,and
mostlikelywillincreasetoaround3.2Fto7.2Fbyapproximatelytheyear2100.8
Inorderformankindtocontrolandreducethegreenhousegasesthatweareemitting
intoouratmosphere,astheycontinuetoshapetheenvironment,theremustbean
investigationintowhytheyarebecomingmoreabundant.Manyscientistsbelievethatglobal
warming
is
the
most
serious
threat
to
our
planet.
By
2025
the
world's
energy
demand
is
projectedtobe3.5timesgreaterthanin1990,withannualCO2emissionsnearly50percent
higher.9
Itisimperativeforustounderstandthenegativeeffectsthatenergyconsumptionhas
onourenvironment. Howeveritisalsoimportanttoidentifywherethemajorityofthis
consumptioniscomingfrom.Homes,lightingandheatingareallcontributingtotheproblem,
yetcarsareamongthemostsignificantastheyareavailableinthegreatestnumbersallacross
the
world,
and
are
very
high
on
the
list
of
things
to
change.
Regretfully,thedemandsontodaysenergysourcesareveryextensive. People
generallydonotthinkabouttheproductionofenergy,aflickofaswitchorpushofabuttonto
7Irvingetal.2009
8Randy2009
9Desonie2002
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turniton,andtheinstantaneouspowerprovidedleadstoitbeingoverlooked.Adecreasein
energyconsumptionwillreducethenegativeeffectupontheenvironment,givingusmoretime
tofindareliablewaytomanageeverydaylifewithoutseverelyimpairingourplanet.
IntheUnitedStates,ourenergyrelatedactivitiesaccountforthreequartersofour
humangeneratedgreenhousegasemissions,mostlyintheformofcarbondioxideemissions
fromburningfossilfuels.Morethanhalftheenergyrelatedemissionscomefromlarge
stationarysourcessuchaspowerplants,whileaboutathirdcomesfromtransportation.10
AstheevidenceofourcarelessnessbecomesmoreblatantandhazardoustotheEarths
inhabitants,themainquestionbeingaskednowis:whatshouldwedotofixthis?Because
theseissuesaredirectlylinkedtotheamountofenergythathumansconsumeonadailybasis,
itbecomesmoreimperativethatchangesmustbemadetosaveenergyandreduceourwaste
production.Itisimportanttoinvestigateallfactorsinmodern,everydaylifetosolvethisissue.
Itisrequiredthatwecontinuetolookintowaystoslow,andatsomepoint,fixthedamageswe
havedonetotheenvironment.
2.2Emissions
Wheneveracarisstarted,sittingidleordrivingitisproducingemissionsthatarefilling
ouratmosphere. Theseemissionsincludenitrogengas(N2),carbondioxide(CO2),watervapor
(H2O),carbon
monoxide
(CO),
hydrocarbons
or
volatile
organic
compounds
(VOCs),
and
nitrogenoxides(NOandNO2,togethercalledNOx).11
Theairwebreatheismadeupof78
percentnitrogengasandinthecaseofanengine;mostofitjustpassesrightthroughandisnot
consideredaharmfulemission. Aproductofcombustioniscarbon,whichwhenbondedto
oxygenproducesCOandCO2,apoisongasandabelievedculpritofglobalwarming.VOCsare
producedfromevaporated,unburnedfuelsandareamajorcomponentofsmog. NOxarealso
majorcomponentofsmogaswellacidrain. Manyoftheseemissionsarenaturallyoccurring
compoundsbut
the
concerning
part
about
them
is
the
levels
in
which
they
are
produced
by
cars. TheFederalHighwayAdministrationhasdocumentedthelevelsoftheseemissionsand
howmuchofeachcompoundisproducedbycars(seeFigure1).
10Randy2009
11Bryantetal.2008
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AirPollutantProportionfromOn
roadMotorVehiclesNote
OxidesofNitrogen
(NOx)34%
precursortogroundlevelozone(smog),whichdamagesthe
respiratorysystemandinjuresplants
VolatileOrganic
Compounds(VOC) 34%
precursortogroundlevelozone(smog),whichdamagesthe
respiratorysystemandinjuresplants
CarbonMonoxide
(CO)51% contributestosmogproduction;poisonousinhighconcentrations
ParticulateMatter
(PM10)10%
doesnotincludedustfrompavedandunpavedroads, whichare
themajorsourceofparticulatematterpollution(50%ofthetotal)
CarbonDioxide(CO2) 33% thoughttobeprimarycontributortoglobalwarming
Figure1:TransportationAirQuality:SelectedFactsandFigures200212.
Accordingto
the
EPA.gov
website,
for
every
gallon
of
gasoline
used,
about
20
pounds
of
carbondioxide(CO2)arepumpedintotheair. Here'showitaddsup:Agallonofgasoline
weighsjustover6pounds.Whenburned,thecarboninitcombineswithoxygentoproduce
about19poundsofCO2.Addingintheenergythatwentintomakinganddistributingthefuel,
thetotalglobalwarmingpollutionisabout25poundsofCO2pergallon.Anaveragecarthat
gets21mpgandisdrivenabout30milesadayuses1.4gallonsdailyandemits35.7poundsof
CO2everyday.13
Anaveragehouseholdwithtwomediumsizedsedansemitsmorethan20,000
poundsof
carbon
dioxide
(CO2)
ayear.
14
One
also
has
to
think
about
all
of
the
families
that
ownmorethantwocarsorhaveavehicleotherthanasedan,suchasatruckorSUV. Notall
vehiclesburnthesameamountofgasolineandthereforedonotallproducethesameamount
ofemissions. Forthepurposeofthispaper,onecanplacealltrucksandmidsizesinthe
categoryofSUVs. Onaverage,SUVsemit40%moreexhaustthansmallercarsandthe
percentageofSUVsonAmericanroadstodayisover30%.15
Whentakingintoaccountthe
amountoflargervehiclesontheroadtoday,thenumbersprovidedfortheaverageCO2
emissionsfor
atwo
sedan
family
can
be
significantly
increased
to
reflect
actual
amounts
of
pollution.
12Sterba2009
13Desonie2002
14Irvingetal.2009
15Antenora2008
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Hybridcarsshouldnotcreateasmuchemissionswhiledriving,becausethegasoline
engineisnotonallofthetime. Thewholeconceptofasecondpowersource,however,adds
weighttoacarwithoutbeingabletoremoveanyweight. Electricenginesaremadeupoflarge
amountsofcopperwireswhichultimatelyjustaddmasstothecar. Hybridsarecommonlythe
sameweightandsometimesheavierthanasimilarlysizedcar,whichmeansmorepowerhasto
beproducedthanusualtoachievecomparableperformance. Theneedtoproducemore
poweraddsemissionstothehybridsloweredemissionlevelswhichbringsthemclosertoeven
withconventionalcars. Incitiesorstopandgotraffichybridsaregreatfortheenvironment,
creatingalmostzeroemissions,butwhenhybridcarsaredrivingonroadssuchashighways
theyareinessencenormalcarsbecausetheelectricmotorisnotrunningatall. Takingallof
thesefactorsintoaccount,hybridcars,onaverageonlycreateabouta20percentreductionin
CO2emissions.16
2.3ProductionofCars
Whenmostpeoplethinkaboutcarstheygenerallydontconsiderwhatgoesinto
makingthem. Rawmaterialshavetoobtained,whetherthatmeansbeingmined,melted,and
carburizedorsomeothermethod. Thesematerialsmustbetransportedtovariousplantsand
factoriesbeforetheyaremadeintocarcomponents.Transportation,whetheritisbyplane,
trainor
automobile
all
requires
resources
like
fuel
and
oil
and
manpower.
Once
in
aproduction
area,evenmoreresourcesareusedtocreatepartsandtheneventuallyfinishedproducts. This
isallbeforeacarisevenseenbyaconsumer,butwhathappensaftertheconsumerisfinished
withthecar? Recyclingisamajorbusinessinthisdayandage,buthowmuchofacarcanbe
recycled?Howmuchemissionsarebeingproducedbytheserecyclingprocesses. Whatkindsof
byproductsarebeingproduced,throughouttheentirelifetimeofcars?
2.3.1ProductionEmissions
Carswith
different
propulsion
devices
are
going
to
need
different
types
of
materials.
Thingsliketires,windowsandpaintarethingsthatareprettymuchallthesameinallcarsand
youdonotfindmuchvariationintheamountneededtocompleteacar. Materialslikelead
andnickel,however,havealargedifferencebetweencars. TraditionalICEcarshaveleadbased
16Giggs2009
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batteriesandzeronickelcomponents,whilehybridshavelargenickelbasedbatteriesandno
lead. Emissionslevels,specificallyCO2levels,fortheprocessingofthematerialthatmakeup
carscanbelookedatandcomparedagainsteachothertohelpunderstandifhybridsarebetter
fortheenvironment. Inthecaseofthebatteries,forexample,fromtherawmaterialstate,the
productionofleadbasedbatteriesproduces9kgC,andtheproductionofnickelbasedbatteries
produces2430kgCandashighas215kgCinthecaseofastrictlyelectriccar. Ifcompanies
weretouse100%recycledmaterials,thedifferencebetweentheCO2emissionslevelswouldbe
evenmoresevere. Figure2andFigure3showCO2theemissions(kgC)resultingfromthe
productionofautomobilecomponentsfrombothrawmaterialsand100%recycledmaterials.
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PowerPlant Current Baseline Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced
Fuel SIICE SIICE SIICE CIICE SIHybrid CIHybrid SIHybrid FCHybrid
Drive Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline Diesel Gasoline Diesel CNG Gasoline
Body Auto Autocl. Autocl. Autocl. CVT CVT CVT Direct
TotalFerrous
Metals778
589
285 333 307 340 304
563
Aluminum 290 348 1224 1205 1193 1179 1247 1090
Glass 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22
Magnesium 57 117 117 117 117 117 117 117
Copper 18 18 18 18 22 22 22 22
Zinc 7 7 3 3 3 3 3 3
Lead 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0
Plastics 188 182 188 203 180 190 196 135
Rubber 79 74 74 74 74 74 74 74
Wood,Felts,
Carpets,etc.
120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120
Paint,Coatings
9
9
9 9 9 9 9
9 Nickel 0 0 0 0 24 24 24 30
Others N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Total 1577 1492 2069 2113 2070 2100 2137 2206 Figure2:CO2Emissions(kgC)ResultingfromtheProductionofAutomobileComponentsfromVirginMaterialsforallvehiclesconsidere
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PowerPlant Current Baseline Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced
Fuel SIICE SIICE SIICE CIICE SIHybrid CIHybrid SIHybrid FCHybrid
Drive Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline Diesel Gasoline Diesel CNG Gasoline
Body Auto Autocl. Autocl. Autocl. CVT CVT CVT Direct
TotalFerrous
Metals481
362
176 206 190 210 188
348
Aluminum 59 70 248 244 242 239 253 221
Glass 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11
Magnesium 6 11 11 11 11 11 11 11
Copper 8 8 8 8 10 10 10 19
Zinc 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
Lead 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0
Plastics 94 91 94 102 90 95 98 68
Rubber 79 74 74 74 74 74 74 74
Wood,Felts,
Carpets,etc.
60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Paint,Coatings
5
5
5 5 5 5 5
5 Nickel 0 0 0 0 24 24 24 30
Others N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Total 806 698 690 723 716 740 733 847 Figure3:CO2Emissions(kgC)ResultingfromtheProductionofAutomobileComponentsfromSecondaryMaterialsforallvehiclescons
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Carbondioxideisnottheonlyemissionthatisharmfultotheenvironmentthough,
manyotherbiproductsarereleased. Otherpollutantsmaycomefrompainting,fiberglassing,
moldingandcleaningparts.Forthepurposeofthispaper,wecanassumethatthesearefairly
constantintheirbiproductsandtheydonotvaryfromhybridstotraditionalcarsenoughto
makeasignificantdifferenceinourdata.
2.3.2ProductionEnergyConsumption
Thematerialsinwhichcarsaremadefromneedtocomefromsomewhere,andby
whateverprocessthatmaybe,allofthemuseenergy. Certainprocessestakemoreenergy
thanothersandallofthisaddstoboththecostofthecarandtheeffectithasonthe
environment. Theenergythatgoesintotheseprocesseshastocomefromapowerplantof
somesort.
Power
plants
may
be
coal
fired,
nuclear,
hydro
electric,
wind
powered
or
run
by
variousothersmallermethods. Nomatterwhatsourcetheenergyhascomefrom,thereare
negativeeffectstotheenvironmentthatgohandinhandwiththem. Figure4showsenergy
usethatgoesintotheproductionofvehiclematerials.
PrimaryProduction
(0%Recycling)
SecondaryProduction
(100% Recycling)
Automotive
Engineering
(1996)
Singhetal.
(1998)
ThisStudy Automotive
Engineering
(1996)
ThisStudy
FerrousMetals
Steel
Iron
40.0
34.0
52.3(1)
19.3(2)
40.0
18.1
24.0
30.0
Aluminum
Wrought
Cast
Stamped
196.0
189.0 206.6
205.2
220.0
26.7
26.0
40.0
Plastics 90.0 30.078.7(3) 90.0 15.0 45.0
Glass 30.0 21.6(3) 30.0 13.0 15.0
Magnesium,
Cast
274.0 280.0 27.2 27.00
Copper 100.0 113.7 100.0 45.0 45.0
Zinc 53.0 50.0 15.9 16.0
Lead 41.1 28.0(3) 40.0 8.0 8.0
Rubber 67.6 40.5(3) 70.0 43.6 N/A
Nickel 110.0 110.0 110.0Figure4:EnergyUseinVehicleProduction(inMJperkgofmaterial).
19
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NOTE:Allnumbersareexpressedinprimaryenergyrequirements.ThecolumnsThisStudyindicatethe
roundednumbersthatwehaveemployedinthisstudy;aswedonotdistinguishbetweenironandsteel,
energyintensitiesareidenticalforbothmaterialsandareincludedinouraggregatecategoryferrousmetals.(1)
Virginsteelparts;(2)
pigiron;(3)
mainproductionprocessonly.Source:OnetheRoadin2020,October
2000.
Manyhybrid
companies
are
designing
their
cars
to
be
lighter
in
or
order
to
try
and
use
energymoreefficientlywhiledriving. Thewayinwhichmanycompaniesachievethisisby
usinglightermaterials,suchasaluminum,inthebodyasopposedtosteelwhichisaboutthree
timesasdenseasaluminum. Thisdoeshelptousethecarsenergymoreefficientlyiftheiscar
lighter,butatwhatexpense? Theprocessingofaluminumcanuseuptotentimestheamount
ofenergyusetoprocessthesameamountofsteel. Chancesarethattheamountofextra
energyusedtoproducethealuminumisnotjustifiedbytheamountofenergysavedinthe
drivingof
the
hybrid
car.
Figure
5shows
amounts
of
certain
materials
and
how
the
vary
in
differentcars. UsingthemassesinFigure5andtheenergyusageinFigure4,wecancalculate
howmuchmoreenergygoesintocertainprocessesofmakingacar. Bycomparingthe
differencesinenergyconsumptionofproductiontotheenergysavedbydrivingalightercar,
weareabletodetermineiftheextraproductionisjustified.
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PowerPlant Current Baseline Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Ad
Fuel SIICE SIICE SIICE CIICE SIHybrid CIHybrid SIHybrid FCHybrid FC
Drive Gasoline Gasoline Gasoline Diesel Gasoline Diesel CNG Gasoline M
Body Auto Autocl. Autocl. Autocl. CVT CVT CVT Direct Di
Ferrous
Metals886
667
325 379 350 387 346
640 56
Aluminum 81 97 342 337 334 330 349 305 30
Glass 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35
Magnesium 10 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Copper 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 21 19
Zinc 7 7 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Lead 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 0
Plastics 100 97 100 108 96 101 104 72 71
Rubber 54 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
Wood,Felts,
Carpets,etc.
64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64
Paint,
Coatings5
5
5
5 5 5 5
5 5
Nickel 0 0 0 0 10 11 10 13 12
Others 9 9 9 9 17 17 17 76 62
Total 1323 1108 1007 1061 1022 1059 1038 1329 12Figure5:VehicleMass(inkg)byMaterialforallVehiclesConsideredinThisStudy.
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2.4ConsumerBehaviorandMarketingStrategy
Therearemanyreasonswhypeopledecidedtopurchaseanewvehicle. In2009itwas
foundthattheprimarymotivationforbuyinganewcarwashighmileageontheconsumers
previousorcurrentcar. Whenavehicleattainshighmileage,typicallyproblemswiththecars
conditionarise,whethertheexteriorofthecariserodingorbeginningtolookworn,the
interiormightbe unkemptandgrungy,orthecarmightbegintohavemechanicalproblems.
Carswhichcontinuallybreakdownandspendexcessiveamountsoftimebeingrepairedcan
workouttobeaverycostlyexpense.Inthelongrunitismoreeconomicaltobuynewandhave
thesatisfactionandknowledgethatthecarwillbecoveredunderawarranty23
,before
problemsarise,mostpeopletrytosellhisorhercarandthenpurchaseanewone,or,ifthese
problemsoccurredunexpectedly,ratherthanspendingmoneysenselesslyonavehiclethat
mightnotbeworthit,itismoreresourcefulfortheownertoinvestinanewcar.24
Otherssometimesjustgettiredoftheirvehicleanddesiresomethingmoreupdated.
Theymightwishforsomethingwithmoremoderntechnology,equippedwiththelatest
machineryandfeatures,somethingmorecomfortableandwithacontemporarysleek
appearance,Manypeoplearechoosingtogetanewercarbecausemanysafetyfeaturesnow
comeasstandardonmostmakesandmodels.Airbagsfittedtoboththedriver'sandfront
passengerareakeyfeaturemanypeoplenowlookfor.Additionalbackseatairbagsandside
impactairbagsarebecomingincreasinglyrequestedsafetyfeaturesbypeoplelookingforfamily
cars.25
Correspondinglynewervehicleshaveadvancedsoundsystemsandnavigationsystems,
electronicpowerfeaturesandinnovativevoicenotificationforroutinemaintenanceand
reminders,keylessentry,sunroofs,increasedcomfortofseatingandamenities,andenhanced
lighting,amongvariousotherluxuries. Alsohavingtodowithappearanceisthesizeofthe
vehicle. Manypeoplerequireavehiclewithmoreroomandadditionalspacetocompensate
foragrowingfamily,extracurricularactivities,etc. Corporationsarecontinuallyproducingnew
andimprovedSUVs,minivans,trucks,andlargercarswithaddedroomandextraseatingthat
23Giggs2009
24Giggs2009
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arerequisitesfortheircustomers.Theselargeroptionslikewiseareequippedwiththeupdated
moderntechnologyandfeaturesmandatoryforautomobilesproducedtoday.
Apopularbenefitofthecarsproducedpresentlyisthattypicallytheyfeatureimproved
gasmileage. Becauseofthisincreaseingaspricesaprevailingrationaleforgettinganewcaris
thisnewcharacteristicofimprovedgasmileage. Goinghandinhandwiththedesireforbetter
gasmileageisthedecisionforpeopletogogreen. Manyofthevehiclesthataremadewith
bettergasmileage,orthatfeaturethegreatestgasmileage,arehybridvehiclesthatarealso
betterfortheenvironmentandappealtothoseconcernedwithglobalwarmingandpollution,
Going'green'ishighuponthelistformanypeople.Savingonfuelandrunningcostsisgiven
carefulconsiderationbymanypeople.26
1.Oldcarhadhighmileage(35%)
2.Justtiredofoldcar,wantedsomethingnew(22%)
3.Oldcarwasalwaysinforrepairs(20%)
4.Wantedacarwithbettergasmileage(19%)
5.Oldcardied(18%)
6.Notsure(17%)
7.Likethestylingofnewermodels(15%)
8.Wantedavehiclewithbettersafetyfeatures(15%)
9.Gooddealstoohardtopassup(14%)
10.Neededanothercarforfamily(14%)
11.Significant
other
wanted
anew
car
(12%)
12.Neededavehiclewithmoreroom(9%)
13.Wantedacarwithmorehightechtoys(6%)
14.Leaseonoldcarisup(5%)
Figure6:TopFourteenReasonsPeopleBuyHybrids.Source:RoadandTravelMagazine,June24,2009.
Studieshavebeenperformedontheconsumersofhybridvehicles,whichhaverevealed
thatthesepeoplehavecertainaspectsinrespecttotheirpersonalitiesthatgivethemaunique
profile. OnestudythatlooksattheprofileofhybridconsumersistheJ.D.PowerandAssociates
2008PowerAutoOfflineMediaReport SpringEdition. Thisstudyhadatargetaudienceof
44,931driversofnewcarsandtrucks. Thestudyexploresthecharacteristicsofhybridowners
andpotentialhybridowners. Italsoevaluatesmediaviewingandreadershipbehaviors.
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Thecharacteristicsofhybridownersareforthemostpartlogical. Forexample,Those
whopurchasehybridvehiclestendtohavemuchhigherlevelsofeducationandreportmuch
higherhouseholdincomes.27
Carbuyerswhohavemoreknowledgecanmakeaneducated
andrationaldecisionbeforecommittingtoalargefinancialpurchase. Ahigherlevelof
educationbenefitsthebuyerbecausethetoolsofresearchanddecisionmakingcanensure
thatthebuyerreceivesthevehiclethatfitshisorherneeds. Italsocomesasnosurprisethat
hybridownershavehigherincomesthanthoseoftraditionalvehicles. Theaverage$5000price
differencebetweenhybridsandnonhybridsisnotsomethingmanyfamiliescanaffordtopay
upfront. Thisquicklyeradicatestheoptionofahybrid. Theaverageageofahybridbuyeris
fiftyfourwhiletheaveragetraditionalcarbuyerisagefifty.
J.D.Powersstudyrevealedsomepositiveoutcomesabouthybridowners. Thestudy
showedthatHybridownerstendtobeproudadvocatesoftheirvehicles(Mindsetprofile).
Thissuggeststhattheyarepleasedwiththehybridtechnologyandtheyenjoysharingitwith
others. Ingeneral,theygivemoreaffirmativesuggestionsthanthoseofothervehiclebuyers.
Thisfacilitatesthehybridmarketbecausethosewhohaveactuallypurchasedahybridare
givingrecommendationstoothers,whomay,inreturn,purchaseahybridthemselves.
Manypeoplehaveadesiretopurchaseanenvironmentallyfriendlyvehicle. Thiscanbe
seen
by
the
large
number
of
hybrids
being
both
purchased
and
produced.
However,
the
demographicsforpeoplethatdesiregreencars,isinteresting. AJ.D.Powerstudydiscovered
thatfemalesaremoreeagertopaymoreforanenvironmentallyfriendlyvehicle. IntheUnited
States,certainareasaremoresupportiveofthispurchase. ThewesternU.S.hasthegreatest
support,whiletheMidwesthastheleastsupport. Theenvironmentallyfriendlyconsumers
showinterestincompactvehicles. Furthermore,mosthavepreviouslyownedsmallervehicles.
Thepercentageismuchgreaterthanothernewcarbuyers. Thisjustifiesthatenvironmentally
conscious
consumers
have
a
trend
in
purchasing
vehicles
that
have
exceptional
fuel
efficiency.
MindsetMediacreatedapsychographicprofileofhybridownersthatpointoutsome
distinctpersonalityclassifications. Oneisthathybriddriversare78%morecreativethanthe
commonpopulation. Thatis,theyareinventiveandimaginativeandalsotendtobe
27Perrymanetal.2008
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emotionallysensitiveandintellectuallycurious(mindsetprofile). Thecreativepersonality
wouldexplainwhytheypartakeinthenewtechnologyoffered. Anotherreasonforthisisthey
aremoreliberalthanthebroadpopulation. Theopenmindednessandspontaneitygivesthem
interestinnewhybrids,notleavingthemwithasenseofdistrustintheadvancedtechnological
aspectsofthevehicles.
Eventhoughtherearemanypeoplewhoareenvironmentallyaware,notallofthem
takeaction. TheJ.D.Powerstudyrevealedthatonly11%ofconsumersareverywillingtopay
moretobuyanenvironmentallyfriendlyvehicle. Also,onlyoneoutoftenenvironmentalists
haspurchasedahybrid.28
Thestudyprovedthattheinterestinenvironmentallyfriendly
vehiclesislimitedtohybrids. Consumersarenotinterestedinbuyingsocalledcleandiesel
vehicles.29
Manyofthenegativeaspectsofdieselvehicles,suchasthedirtyexhaust,have
persistedwithconsumers.
Throughresearch,interviews,andstudiesexaminershaveconcludedthatspecific
symbolsexistforthosewhoownhybridvehicles. InastudydonebytheInstituteof
TransportationStudiesattheUniversityofCalifornia,Davisitwasconcludedthatacertain
symbolismappliestothemarketforhybrids. Inresponsetohouseholdinterviews,the
denotationsofpreservingtheenvironment,oppositiontowar,managementofpersonal
finances,
reduction
of
support
to
oil
producers,
and
the
embracement
of
new
technology
were
justified. Ethicswasamajorfactorinthesedenotations. Independenceandasenseof
individualityalsocameintoplay. Theownersofhybridsfeelasthoughitistherightthingto
doandcharacterizetheirvehiclesassomethingtheycanfeelgoodabout.30
Therefore,owners
giveprecedencetohisorherpurchaseinanethicalviewpoint. Itshowsthattheycare. Owners
happilysacrificesomepersonalinterestsforthegreatergood. Inconjunctionwiththis
sacrifice,ownershopethatthepurchaseofahybridwillhelpsetanexampleandcreatea
future
where
everyone
drives
hybrids.
31
28Perrymanetal.2008
29LaMonica2008
30Heffneretal.2007
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Whenmarketinganewproduct,thegeneralwantsandneedsofyourtargetmarket
shouldbeyourfocus,andfulfillingthosedeterminedrequirementsshouldbetheoverall
objective. Thenewproductshouldbeanimprovementoverwhatitisattemptingtoreplace,
moretechnologicallyadvancedandestheticallypleasingtoenticethepublicintopurchasing
thisnewmerchandise. Traditionally,economistsandmarketresearchershavebeeninterested
inidentifyingthefactorsthataffectconsumers'carbuyingbehaviorstoestimatemarketshare,
andtothatendtheyhavedevelopedvariousmodelsofvehicletypechoice.However,theydo
notusuallyconsiderconsumers'travelattitudes,personality,lifestyle,andmobilityasfactors
thatmayaffectthevehicletypechoice.32
Lifestylesdeterminethetypesofvehiclesthatindividualspurchase. Someonethat
makesasubstantialamountofmoney,anindividualwithahigherstatusoramoreeliteranking
insocietyistypicallyinterestedinalavishvehiclethatisrepresentativeoftheaccomplishments
madeorthepositionupheld,Statusseekersaremorelikelytodriveanexpensivecar(luxury
andsportscategories)becausesuchcarsarecommonstatussymbolsinmodernsociety.33
Whereassomeonethatmakesalesssignificantamountofmoneyhastopurchaseavehicle
moremodestandinlinewithwhatisaffordable. Familiesrequireautomotivesthatarecapable
ofcarryingmultiplepassengers;thereforetheynecessitatelargercars,trucks,orSUVs. Single
persons
or
couples
usually
have
little
use
for
larger
vehicles
and
might
prefer
something
smaller
ormorecompact.
Demographically,apersonthatlivesinthecountrymightrequireatruckorlarger
vehiclewithfourwheeldriveorthecapabilitiesofdrivingonroadsthatarenotinthebest
condition,whereaspeoplethatdriveincitiesmightdesireacarthatismorecompactso
compensateforlimitedspaceandsmallparkingareas,Thosewholikelivinginhighdensity
areasmaychooseasmallercar(smallandcompactcategories)becausetheyhaveaccessible
public
transit
and
restrictions
on
parking,
making
them
less
likely
to
commute
by
car.
34
Somepeopledreadtheircommutetoworkortravelinganywhereingeneral. Toatone
fortheirdislikeofdrivingtheyaremorelikelytobuyalarger,morecomfortablevehiclesothat
32Chooetal.2003
33Chooetal.2003
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theymightrelaxwhiledrivingandmaketheirexperiencelessfrustratingandmorepleasant.
Though,eventhosethatenjoytravelingarelikelytobuytheseextravagantvehiclesinorderto
maketheirexperiencethatmuchmoregratifying.
Peoplethatareconcernedwiththeeffectsofemissionsontheenvironmentaremore
attractedtosmallervehicleswithbettergasmileageinanattempttohaveamorepositive
effectontheenvironment,Thosewhostronglysupportproenvironmentalpoliciesaremore
likelytoprioritizereducingmobilesourceemissionsandthereforetodriveasmallercar(small
andcompactcategories).35
Hybridvehiclescanbeanoverallimprovementoverconventionalvehicles,butonly
whenmanypositivefactorsallculminateatonce,whichisunlikely. Thesevehiclesarenow
availableinnumerousmodelsofalldifferentsizes,capableoffillingtherequirementsforsingle
individualsorfamilies. Theyaremoretechnologicallyadvanced,characteristicallytheir
appearanceismoremodernanddesirable,andbecausetherearesomanydifferentmodels
andversionsofthesecarsnow,theyarebettersuitedforawholespectrumofpeoplewith
differentdesiresandpersonalities. Atatimewhengaspricescontinuetoincrease,the
economycontinuestostruggle,andmanyindividualsarebecomingincreasinglyawareof
contaminationofourenvironment,thehybridvehiclehasbecomealluringtomanyasitalso
addresses
these
about
mobility,
travel
attitudes
and
lifestyle.
Hybrid
vehicles
are
an
overall
improvementoverconventionalvehicles,beingmoretechnologicallyadvanced,
characteristicallytheirappearanceismoremodernanddesirable,itisappealingtothosethat
arelookingtosavemoneyonfuel,andisalsotemptingtothoseconcernedwiththe
environmentandthecurrentissuessurroundingglobalwarmingandpollution. Atatimewhen
gaspricescontinuetoincrease,theeconomycontinuestostruggle,andmanyindividualsare
becomingincreasinglyawareofcontaminationofourenvironment,thehybridvehiclehas
become
alluring
to
many.
Duetothesteadilyincreasinggasprices,thepopularityofHybridvehiclesamong
societyhasalsoescalated. Therearemanyreasonsforpurchasingthesenewtechnologically
advancedautomotives;however,oneofthemorecurrentreasonsistheamountofmoney
35Chooetal.2003
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customerssaveonfuel. Thesenewcarsareadvertisedtoachieveexceptionalgasmileage
whencomparedwithconventionalcars. Itissaidthateventhoughtheyaretypicallymore
expensiveinitially,theamountthatyousaveongaseventuallyallowsthepurchasertobreak
evenandsavemoney,withgaspricesrisingevenfurtheritislikelythatyouwillrecoup
thatupfrontpremiuminjustafewshortyears.36
Forexample,theToyotaCamryHybridgets
about31milespergalloninthecityand32milespergallononthehighway,whiletheToyota
CamryV6getsabout21milespergallonand31milespergallonrespectively. Ifanindividual
wastodriveabout15,000milesinayearwithgaspricesatabout$3.20agallon,theperson
wouldsaveapproximately$547.00ayear,takingthreeyearstorecouptheupfrontpremium.37
Anotherissuefacingtheeconomyisglobalwarmingandtheeffectsofpollutiononusandthe
environment. Thosethatbelieveandsupportintheworldgoinggreenlookatthelowerfossilfuel
emissionsofhybridvehiclesasareasontobuythesecars. Withthecombinationofagasolineengine
andanelectricmotor,hybridcarsproducelessemissionswhilebeingdriven,thussavingongasandalso
helpingtheenvironment. Whilemosthybridcarsstillburngasolineinaninternalcombustionengine,
theyalsouseotherformsofmotivepowertohelplimithowmuchgasolinetheyburn.Thismeansthat
hybridcarscausesignificantlylessdamagetotheenvironmentthannormalcars.Itissaidthatevery
gallonoffuelburnedproduces26poundsofcarbondioxidethatisthenreleasedintotheenvironment.
Bydrivingacarthatismorefuelefficient,acarthatgetsabout10milesmorepergallonincomparison
toyour
old
car,
an
individual
can
reduce
the
amount
of
carbon
dioxide
released
into
the
environment
by
about2,500poundseachyear.
Otherthanthepotentialsavingsonfuelandtheopportunitytogivebacktothe
environment,therearealsostateandfederaltaxbenefitstopersuadecustomerstospendthe
additionalmoneyinpurchasinganewhybridvehicle,TheEnergyPolicyActof2005replaced
thecleanfuelburningdeductionwithataxcredit.Ataxcreditissubtracteddirectlyfromthe
totalamountoffederaltaxowed,thusreducingoreveneliminatingthetaxpayerstax
obligation.The
tax
credit
for
hybrid
vehicles
applies
to
vehicles
purchased
or
placed
in
service
onorafterJanuary1,2006. Thecreditisonlyavailabletotheoriginalpurchaserofanew,
qualifyingvehicle.Ifaqualifyingvehicleisleasedtoaconsumer,theleasingcompanymay
36Ransom2008
37Ransom2008
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claimthecredit.38
Therearemanyrulesandrequirementsthatmustbefollowedtomakean
individualeligibleforthesetaxcredits,someofthesebeingthatthehybridmustbepurchased
new,notused,thecarmustbeusedprimarilywithintheUnitedStates,thevehiclemustbe
purchasedwithinacertaintimeperiod,andthedatethatthevehicleisboughtissomewhata
determiningfactorintheamountoftaxcredittheindividualwillreceive. Evenwiththe
restrictionoftheseregulations,therearemanyvehiclesthatareeligibletoreceivethese
federaltaxcredits,seeFigure7:FederalTaxCreditsforHybrids.
HybridFederalTaxCredit
1 2009CadillacEscaladeHybrid4drSUV(6.0L8cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $2,200
2 2009CadillacEscaladeHybrid4drSUV4WD(6.0L8cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $1,800
3 2008ChevroletMalibuHybrid4drSedan(2.4L4cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $1,300
4
2009Chevrolet
Malibu
Hybrid
4dr
Sedan
(2.4L
4cyl
gas/electric
hybrid
4A)
$1,550
5 2009ChevroletSilverado1500Hybrid4drCrewCabw/1HYSB(6.0L8cylgas/electric
hybrid4A)
$2,200
6 2009ChevroletSilverado1500Hybrid4drCrewCab4WDw/1HYSB(6.0L8cylgas/electric
hybrid4A)
$2,200
7 2009ChevroletSilverado1500Hybrid4drCrewCabw/2HYSB(6.0L8cylgas/electric
hybrid4A)
$2,200
8 2009ChevroletSilverado1500Hybrid4drCrewCab4WDw/2HYSB(6.0L8cylgas/electric
hybrid4A)
$2,200
9 2008ChevroletTahoeHybrid4drSUV(6.0L8cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $2,200
10 2008ChevroletTahoeHybrid4drSUV4WD(6.0L8cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $2,200
11
2009
Chevrolet
Tahoe
Hybrid
4dr
SUV
(6.0L
8cyl
gas/electric
hybrid
4A)
$2,20012 2009ChevroletTahoeHybrid4drSUV4WD(6.0L8cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $2,200
13 2009ChryslerAspenLimitedHEV4drSUV4WD(5.7L8cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $2,200
14 2009DodgeDurangoLimitedHEV4drSUV4WD(5.7L8cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $2,200
15 2008FordEscapeHybrid4drSUV(2.3L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $1,500
16 2008FordEscapeHybrid4drSUVAWD(2.3L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $1,100
17 2009FordEscapeHybrid4drSUV(2.5L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $1,500
18 2009FordEscapeHybrid4drSUVAWD(2.5L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $975
19 2009FordEscapeHybridLimited4drSUV(2.5L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $1,500
20 2009FordEscapeHybridLimited4drSUVAWD(2.5L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $975
21 2010FordFusionHybrid4drSedan(2.5L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $1,700
22
2009
GMC
Sierra
1500
Hybrid
4dr
Crew
Cab
w/3HA
SB
(6.0L
8cyl
gas/electric
hybrid
4A)
$2,20023 2009GMCSierra1500Hybrid4drCrewCab4WDw/3HASB(6.0L8cylgas/electrichybrid
4A)
$2,200
24 2009GMCSierra1500Hybrid4drCrewCabw/3HBSB(6.0L8cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $2,200
25 2009GMCSierra1500Hybrid4drCrewCab4WDw/3HBSB(6.0L8cylgas/electrichybrid
4A)
$2,200
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26 2008GMCYukonHybrid4drSUV(6.0L8cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $2,200
27 2008GMCYukonHybrid4drSUV4WD(6.0L8cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $2,200
28 2009GMCYukonHybrid4drSUV(6.0L8cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $2,200
29 2009GMCYukonHybrid4drSUV4WD(6.0L8cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $2,200
30 2008MazdaTributeHybridGrandTouring4drSUV(2.3L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $3,000
31
2008
Mazda
Tribute
Hybrid
Grand
Touring
4dr
SUV
AWD
(2.3L
4cyl
gas/electric
hybrid
CVT) $1,950
32 2008MazdaTributeHybridTouring4drSUV(2.3L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $3,000
33 2008MazdaTributeHybridTouring4drSUVAWD(2.3L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $1,950
34 2009MazdaTributeHybridGrandTouring4drSUV(2.5L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $3,000
35 2009MazdaTributeHybridGrandTouring4drSUVAWD(2.5L4cylgas/electrichybrid
CVT)
$1,950
36 2009MazdaTributeHybridTouring4drSUV(2.5L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $3,000
37 2009MazdaTributeHybridTouring4drSUVAWD(2.5L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $1,950
38 2008MercuryMarinerHybrid4drSUV(2.3L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $1,500
39 2008MercuryMarinerHybrid4drSUVAWD(2.3L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $1,100
40
2009
Mercury
Mariner
Hybrid
4dr
SUV
(2.5L
4cyl
gas/electric
hybrid
CVT)
$1,50041 2009MercuryMarinerHybrid4drSUVAWD(2.5L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $975
42 2010MercuryMilanHybrid4drSedan(2.5L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $1,700
43 2008NissanAltimaHybrid4drSedan(2.5L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $2,350
44 2009NissanAltimaHybrid4drSedan(2.5L4cylgas/electrichybridCVT) $2,350
45 2008SaturnAuraHybridGreenLine4drSedan(2.4L4cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $1,300
46 2009SaturnAuraHybrid4drSedan(2.4L4cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $1,550
47 2008SaturnVUEHybridGreenLine4drSUV(2.4L4cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $1,550
48 2009SaturnVUEHybrid4drSUV(2.4L4cylgas/electrichybrid4A) $1,550
Figure7:FederalTaxCreditsforHybrids39
Whenpurchasinganewvehicle,financesaregreatlyimportant,ifnotthemost
importantaspectwhenthecustomerismakingtheirdecision. Peoplegenerallylookfor
numerouswaysinwhichtheycanreducetheamountofmoneythattheyarespending. The
governmenthascapitalizedonthisandbeganofferingincentivesforindividuals,influencing
themintospendingmoremoneyinitiallytopurchaseahybridvehicleinordertosavemoney
later.Throughonlinesources,articles,anddealerships,thevarietyofincentivesandprograms
canbeanalyzed.Throughinterviewswithbothsalesrepresentativesandcustomers,the
effectivenessofthesegovernmentincentivescanbedetermined. Talkingtoindividualswho
havealreadytakenadvantageofthesemotivationsdeterminesifitwasworthitforthemto
spendtheextramoneyinitially.Speakingwithcustomersthathaventyetmadeacommitment
helpstodetermineiftheincentivesaresuccessfullyinfluencingpeopleintomakingthedecision
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tobuyahybridvehicleinsteadofaconventionalcar. Theinterviewswithsalerepresentatives
shouldgiveinsightfulopinionsonwhetherornottheprogramsarebeneficialordeceivingfor
individuals.
Whenhybridvehicleswerefirstintroducedonthemarket,manyassociatedthemwith
theToyotaPrius. SomeindividualswereattractedtothedistinctstyleofthePriusasthey
considereditastatementtosocietythattheywereconcernedaboutthewellbeingofthe
environmentandtheconditionoftheworldinwhichwelive.SincethePrius,much
advancementhavebeenmadeandHybridvehiclesarenowavailableinnumerousdifferent
modelstoappealtoawidevarietystylesandpreferencesofthetargetmarket,One
importantdecisionisthesizeofthevehicle."Ifyoureally,reallyneedanSUVsizedvehicle,
thereareanumberofhybridSUVsthatareonthemarketnoworcomingontothemarket
soon,notesBerman.40
InsteadofthePriusthatdoesntappealtomost,therearenowmore
conventionallookingvehiclesavailableashybridmodels,providingpeopleoptionsand
alternativestochooseacarthatisbestsuitedforthemandtheirlifestyle.
Somemaybelievethatthenewhybridvehiclesarenotaspowerfulastheir
counterparts,theirenginesbeingsignificantlysmallerthantheenginesofconventional
vehicles. Whenthehybridwasfirstintroducedthereweresomereportsofthesenewcars
being
somewhat
sluggish,
however,
over
time
as
improvements
have
been
made,
there
are
reportsnowthatsomehybridsarequickerthanconventionalcars,Theengineinthehybridcar
ispowerfulenoughtomovethecaralongonthefreeway,butwhenitneedstogetthecar
movinginahurry,orgoupasteephill,itneedshelp.That"help"comesfromtheelectric
motorandbattery thissystemstepsintoprovidethenecessaryextrapower.41
Witha
smallerlighterengine,fewercylinders,andlighterpistonsandinternalcomponents,thismakes
hybridcarsmorefuelefficient. Alsohelpingbridgethepowergapbetweenhybridcarsand
conventional
cars
are
the
materials
that
the
vehicles
are
constructed
out
of,
some
hybrid
cars
areconstructedwithultralightweightmaterialslikecarbonfiberoraluminum.Hybridcarsare
alsodesignedtobemoreaerodynamicthanmostcars,allowingthemto"slice"throughair
insteadofpushingitoutoftheway.Allthesefactorscombinedequatetoasuperefficientform
40Ransom2009
41Laytonetal.2008
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ofcarthatgetsexcellentfueleconomyandhelpstheenvironmentbycuttingdownon
pollution.42
2.5Widespreadchangetohybrid/electricinsteadofgasoline/diesel
Theadoption
of
hybrid
technology
continues
to
rise,
but
the
pace
is
still
too
minimal
for
anychangesinenvironmentalissuesorfueldemandtobeseen. Themarketforhybridsisstill
lackinginthenumberofvehiclesandmodelsavailable. Manufacturersarestilldevelopingand
improvingonthehybridtechnologythatisstillfairlyrecent. Ittakesapproximatelyfifteen
yearsfortheautomotivefleettoturnoverintheUS.43 Thisextendedperiodoftimemakesfor
agradualchangebeforeasubstantialamountofvehiclesontheroadsarehybrids.
Withsuchamassiveworldpopulationandhighdependencyontransportation,a
significantswitch
to
hybrids
from
gasoline
and
diesel
vehicles
must
be
met
before
any
changes
canbeseen. Infact,weneed5080%ofthecarbuyersworldwideadoptthesenewlow
carbontechnologyautomobilestomakeamaterialdifference.44
Thatnumberfarexceeds
whereweareattoday. Itwilltakemanymoreyearsforadifferencetobeseeninthelarge
scale. Anothergoalofswitchingtohybridsistodecreaseforeigndependenceonoil. However
therealityisthedevelopmentandwidespreaduseoffullhybridvehiclesby2030willonly
reduceworlddemandfortransportfuelby10%.45
Awidespreadchangetohybridsrequiresan
extendedperiod
of
time
and
also
may
not
be
cost
effective.
Many
of
the
outcomes
are
not
worthallthatgoesintogettingtheadvancedtechnologyontheroad.
2.6Conclusion
Throughourresearchonhybridcartechnology,weexploredmanyinterestingtopics.
Fromstudyinginformationaboutenvironmentaleffects,emissions,productionandmarketing
ofhybridswewereabletounderstandalotoftheprosandconsassociatedwiththem,butit
raisedsomequestionsaswell,suchashowhybridsemissionscomparetostandardcombustion
vehicleemissions,andatwhatpointwouldthehybridvehiclesbeworththeextramoney,with
andwithouttheincentivesthatcomewithpurchasingone. Wealsoinvestigatedthetopicof
42Laytonetal.2008
43Khosla2009
44Khosla2009
45Pickett2008
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widespreadchangetodifferenttypesofhybridvehiclesandhowfeasiblethisplanwouldbe.
Ourresearchhasledustolookatthepast,present,andfutureofcarsontheroads,especially
hybrids. Duetothelargevarietyandamountofquestionsthatwecouldaskonthistopicwe
havehadtocutdownourscopeabit. Wehaveselectedafewmainquestionsthatwewould
liketoanswerbytheclosingofthispaper. AtwhatpointdoesaHybridmakeupforitscost?
Whatarepeoplelookingforwhentheyarebuyingacar?Whatkindsofincentivesarepeople
offeredwhenbuyinghybrids?Whatarethedifferencesinemissionvariationsbetween
standardandhybridcars?Whenaretheyrecycled?Whatarethedifferencesinmaterialsused?
Iswidespreadconversionfeasible?
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Chapter 3. MethodologyTheobjectivesofourpaperweretoanalyzetheprocessofmakinghybridcarstoseeif
theirproductionisascleanastheirdailyuse,examinethevariouseconomiceffectsandroutes
forconvertingcombustionenginevehicleswithalternativedesignstoseeifwidespreadchange
isfeasible,andanalyzemarketingtrendsandchangesassociatedwithhybridtechnology. We
usedmanydifferentmethodstogainaccesstotheinformationweneedtofullystudythese
topics. Secondarydata,interviews,focusgroupsandmanyarticlesandonlinesourceshelped
usmakeeducatedconclusionstoourprojectquestions.
3.1QuantitativeDataAnalysis
Hybridvehicles
are
very
complex
machines
that
require
more
materials
and
work
to
construct,comparedtothestandardcombustionenginevehicle,duetothefactthattheyhave
atleasttwosourcesofpower. Thisbeingthecase,onecouldthinkthatitisonlynaturalthat
theconstructionofhybridscreatesmoreharmfulgassesthancombustionenginevehicles,
howeverbywhatmarginisseldombroughtupinmanyrelevantconversationsandstatistics.
WeusedtheMITstudyOntheRoadin2020,whichincludesdataonthesetopics,tohelpus
makesinformeddecisionsaboutthegreennessofhybrids. Usingthisdata,wecompared
amountsof
different
materials
used
in
cars,
the
energy
consumption
and
emission
levels
used
inprocessingthesematerials,andtheemissionlevelsofcars. Seriesofcalculationsweremade
inMicrosoftExcelspreadsheetsinaprecisesequenceinordertoproduceaccurateanalysis.
Thisproducedquantitativeresultsthatwereusedtogenerategraphsandcomprehensive
displays,showingtimelinesonwhenhybridsbecomesgreenerthanaregularICEs.
3.1.1 EnergyConsumptionCalculations
Ourdataincludedwhatmaterialsgointocertaintypesofcars. Thedatagavethemass
ofeach
material
per
car
as
well
as
the
total
weight
of
the
car.
Our
data
also
included
how
much
energy,inmegaJoules,ittakestoprocesseverykilogramoreachmaterial. Withthisdatawe
foundouthowmuchenergyittakestoproduceeachtypeofcar.
Thefirstsetofcalculationswastotakeeachmaterialandmultiplyitsmass/car(kg/car)
byhowmuchenergyittakestoprocesseachkilogramofthatmaterial(MJ/kg). Thisgaveus
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howmuchenergyisusedtoproduceenoughofeachmaterialforonecar. Next,weaddedup
allofthematerialenergyusagestogetatotalamountofenergyusedtomakethecar. Inour
data,weusetwosetsofenergyconsumptionvalues;oneforprocessingnewrawmaterialand
oneforprocessingrecycledmaterials. Calculationsweredoneforallvehiclesinourstudyand
bothsetsofprocessingdatawereused. Bydoingthesecalculationswewereabletocompare
quantitativelyhowmuchenergy,forbothprimaryandsecondaryprocessing,goesintomaking
eachtypeofvehicle. Anexampleofthecalculationspreadsheetusedforeachcarcanbeseen
below.
Vehicle: Current,SIICE,Gasoline,Auto
GivenData CalculatedData
Vehicle
Mass(kg)
EnergyUse,
Primary
(MJ/kg)
EnergyUse,
Secondary
(MJ/kg)
EnergyUse/
vehicle,
Primary(MJ)
EnergyUse/
vehicle,
Secondary(MJ)
FerrousMetals 886 40 30 35440 26580
Aluminum 81 220 40 17820 3240
Glass 35 30 15 1050 525
Magnesium 10 280 27 2800 270
Copper 9 100 45 900 405
Zinc 7 50 16 350 112
Lead 10 40 8 400 80
Plastics
100
90 45 9000 4500
Rubber 54 70 N/A 3780 #VALUE!
Wood,Felt,etc. 64 0 0
Paint,Coatings 5 0 0
Nickel 0 110 110 0 0
Others 9 0 0
Fluids 54 0 0
Total 1324 71540 35712
Figure8:CalculationSpreadsheetforEnergyConsumption
3.1.2 BreakevenCalculations
Intodayscarmarket,manycarshaveastandardICEmodelaswellasahybridmodel.
Inourstudywecomparedmanyofthesevehicles.Breakevencalculationsletyouknowhow
manymilesneedtobedriveninordertomakethepremiumpriceofahybridmodelbeneficial.
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Forthesecalculationsweneededtoknow,forbothmodels,thepriceofthevehicle,itsgas
mileage(bothcityandhighwayvalueswerepreferred),andthenthepriceofgas(whichcanbe
arbitrarilypickedandchangedtomatchthecurrentpricing).
Tofindthebreakevenpointwehadtosetupanequationthattookintoaccountallof
ourdataatonce. Theequationcomparedgasmileageofthestandardmodeltothatofthe
hybridmodelandcompensatedfortheincreasedprice. Theequationwasthensolvedforthe
mileagevariablewhichwasthesameonbothsidesoftheequation. Thismileagewasthe
minimummileageapersonwouldhavetodrive,inthelifeofthevehicle,tomakeitmonetarily
worthpayingforthemoreexpensivehybrid. Thisequationwasusedwithdifferentvaluesof
gasmileageaswellasthreedifferenttypesofdrivinghabits. Calculationsweredoneforthe
followingstylesofdriving:Strictlyhighway,strictlycity,andaonetooneratioofbothhighway
andcitydriving. Theequationusedcanbeseenbelow.
(Mileage/MPGstandard)*(Gasprice)=(Mileage/MPGhybrid)*(Gasprice)+(PriceDifference)
EquationsolvedforMileagetogivethemileageoftheBreakevenPoint.
Figure9:BreakevenPointEquation
3.2ConsumerAttitudesandSelling
Oneareaofconcerninourhybridresearchinvolvesthesalescharacteristics. We
specificallywantedtoexaminewhatpointsarestressedwhenmarketinghybrids. Salespersons
musthavesometoolsandguidelinesthattheyuseinordertoattemptthesalesofvehicles.
Themarketingcampaignsmaybediversefordifferentmanufacturersandsalesdivisionsand
thatissomethingwehaveconsidered. Mostofthedatausedstemsfrominterviews. These
interviewsweredonewithsalespeopleatcardealerships,aswellasonesconductedwithinour
focusgroups. Aguidelineofquestionswaspreparedinordertomakeeachinterview
successful,providinguswithsubstantialandusefuldata. Throughexaminingthearrayofdata
received,anycommonalitiesinthewaysinwhichsalespeopleanddealershipsmarkettheir
hybridsweredetermined.
Everyindividualbuysacarforareason. Thereareavastamountofdifferentstyles
availableandpeoplebuywhatisappealingtothem. Whatpeoplelookforwhentheyare
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buyingacarisasignificantphaseintheiroveralldecisionmakingprocess. Whetheritisa
hybridoraconventionalinternalcombustionengine,theremustbeareasonforthepurchase.
Datafoundusingourfocusgroupsthatconsistofpeoplewhohaveboughtahybridandthose
whohaverecentlyboughtaninternalcombustionvehiclewascrucialtounderstandingwhat
differentindividualsconsiderthroughouttheirsearch. Onceagain,ourquestionswere
preparedaheadoftime,ensuringourdatastaysconsistentwithregardstothequestionsasked.
Usingthedata,weobservedwhetherornotthosewhobuyhybridshavesimilarreasonsand
whetherornotthosewhobuyinternalcombustionshaveacommontheme.
Ithasbeenstatedearlierthatconvertingtheworldspopulationofcombustionengine
vehiclestohybridvehiclesistheoreticallyillogicalifnotimpossibleduetothelackofresources
andtimeconstraints.However,thisdoesnotmeanthattherearenotareasorgroupsofpeople
thatcannotmakeasignificantimpactontheenvironmentbyswitchingtohybrids.Bystudying
variouspublictransportationstatistics,suchasthedrivingpatternsofdifferenthouseholds,
professions,locations,andenvironmentsfromvarioussources,wedeterminedwherehybrid
carscouldpresentthegreatestefficientenvironmentalimpacts.VehiclessuchasTaxisand
publicbusseswouldbeprimeexamplesofhighimpactvehiclesduetotheirhighmileage.This
way,peoplewhoareswitchingtohybridscantellhowmuchtheyarereducingtheirimpacton
the
environment
compared
to
others
who
are
living
in
different
conditions.
This
would
also
be
anefficientwaytodeterminewheretheoptimalenvironmentalareastosellhybridsare,as
wellasthegeneralnumberthatwouldbeappropriatetosellthere.
3.2.1InterviewwithaCarSalesperson
Valuablemarketinginformationwasgainedthroughpersonalinterviewswithcar
salespeopleandsalerepresentatives. Withnumerousnewmodelsofhybridandnonhybrid
vehiclesavailable,therearemanynewtacticsforsellingcars. Cardealersareexpertsin
understandingtrends
in
car
sales,
whether
they
are
hybrid
or
conventional
vehicles,
changes
andfluctuationsinsalesrates,whichvehiclessuitparticularlifestylesbetterthanothers,
amongstmanyotherimportantdecisionvariables. Theknowledgeandinformationgathered
fromtheseretailerswasessentialinaccuratelyunderstandingthepurchasinghabitsand
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desiresofcustomers. WeinterviewedEdProko,coownerofMillStreetMotorsandlocalused
cardealer,usingasemistructuredinterviewprotocol.
InterviewQuestions:
DoyoudefaulttotryingtosellICEsuntilsomeoneasksabouthybridtechnology? Arethesalesratesofhybridschangingasmoreandmoremodelsofhybridsarebeing
produced?
WhataretheratiosofhybridssoldtoICEssoldinthepastcoupleofyears? Aretheyearlyratioschanging?
Arepeoplestartingtotradeinhybrids? DoyouhavedifferentmarketingstrategiesforsellinghybridsversusICEs? Whatmodelsofcarsarecurrentlysellingthemost? Whatdepreciationrateshaveyounoticedondifferentvehicles,whetherhybridorICE? Howdoyouanticipatewhattypeofvehiclestostockyourcarlotwith?3.3FocusGroups
Thereasonswhypeopledoanddontpurchasehybridvehiclesareasdiverseasthe
numberofcarsontheroad.Forourresearch,itwasimperativethatwesortedoutwhatthe
mostprominentofthesereasonsweresothatwegainedabetterunderstandingofthe
marketingofhybrids.Inordertobeginobtainingthenecessaryinformationweorganizedtwo
eightpersonfocusgroups. Onegroupconsistedofindividualswhopurchasedahybridvehicle
withinthelast12months,andtheotherconsistedofthosewhopurchasedanonhybridinthe
sametimeperiod.Tomakesurethatthingsprogressedassmoothlyaspossible,ourIQPgroup
workedinconjunctionwithanothergroupwhowasalsofocusingonhybridvehicles.
Inordertogatherparticipantsforourfocusgroups,wesentoutanemailtothefaculty
andstudentsofWPI,lookingforthosewhofitthecriteriaofourdesiredcategorieswithan
incentivetodojoinbeinga$25AmericanExpress giftcard.Thosewhowereinterestedinour
groupswere requiredtosendusareplyemailwithsomebasicinformationaboutthemselves
includingthebrandofcartheypurchased,whentheyboughtit,theirname,age,andcontact
information.Aftergoingthroughallthereplies,weselectedpeoplethatwebelievedwouldbe
themostbeneficialtoourstudy.49
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Themeetingslastedroughlyoneandahalfhours,eachonemanagedandsupervisedby
membersfromeachIQPgroup.Uponfirstarrivalatthemeeting,wegreetedthevisitorsand
explainedtothemthepurposeofthemeetings.Eachgroupwasaskedasetofquestions
regardingtheirchoiceofpurchase,whattheirinitialchoiceofvehiclewasatthetime,what
theirdrivinghabitsarelike,andwhattheywerelookingforwhentheystartedcarshopping.
Thehybridownerswouldbeaskedabouttheircars,theimpactsithasorhasnotmadeintheir
drivinglifestyles,andwhattheythinkaresomeofthedifferencesbetweenhybridsand
combustionengines.Thenonhybridownersontheotherhandwouldbeaskedasimilarsetof
questiongearedtowardswhytheychoseanICEcaroverahybrid.
3.3.1People
who
bought
ahybrid
in
the
past
year.
1. Howmuch,onaveragedoyoudriveayear?Whatisyourdailycommutelike?City/Highway/Offroad.
2. Howmuchdoyouspendongasperweek/month/year?3. Howmuchdidthecarcost?Howmuchwasthelastcarpurchased?4. Howlongdoyoukeepyourcar?Howdidyougoaboutgettingridofit?
a. Junk,Sold,TradeIn.5. Whatfactorsgointomakingadecisiontobuyacar,hybridornot?
a. Howdidtheinteriorsize/comfortfactoraffectyourdecision?b. Howdoesoutputperformance(acceleration)affectyourdecision?c. Howdoesyourlifestyle/geographiclocationaffectyourdecision?
i. Forinstance,doyouneedatruckfortowingpurposes,4WDforwinterreasons?
6. Wasthereanythingabouthybridsthatmayhavehadacriticalinfluenceonyoudecisionmaking?
7. HowdoestheeconomicallyunstablefoundationoftheGMCompanyaffectyourdecisionmaking?
3.3.2Peoplewhoboughtanewcar(non-hybrid)inthepastyear.
8. Howmuch,onaveragedoyoudriveayear?Whatisyourdailycommutelike?City/Highway/Offroad.
9. Howmuchdoyouspendongasperweek/month/year?10.Whattypeofcardidyoubuy?Ifthereisacomparablehybridonthemarket,didyou
considerpurchasingit?
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11.Howmuchdidthecarcost?Howmuchwasthelastcarpurchased?Whendidyoupurchaseitanddidyoueverconsiderbuyingahybridthen?
12.Howlongdoyoukeepyourcar?Howdidyougoaboutgettingridofit?b. Junk,Sold,TradeIn.
13.Whatfactorsgointomakingadecisiontobuyacar,hybridornot?d. Howdidtheinteriorsize/comfortfactoraffectyourdecision?e. Howdoesoutputperformance(acceleration)affectyourdecision?f. Howdoesyourlifestyle/geographiclocationaffectyourdecision?
ii. Forinstance,doyouneedatruckfortowingpurposes,4WDforwinterreasons?
14.Wasthereanythingabouthybridsthatmayhavehadacriticalinfluenceonyoudecisionmaking?
15.Howdoesthereputationofthecarcompanyaffectyourdecision?
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Chapter 4. FindingsWeusedmanydifferentmethodstogainaccesstotheinformationwerequiredtofully
studyandanswerthequestionsthatwechose. Secondarydata,interviews,focusgroupsand
manyarticles
and
online
sources
helped
us
make
educated
conclusions
to
our
project
questions.Asweprogressedthroughourresearch,ouranswersbecamemoreapparent,clear
andcertainuntilwewereconfidentwiththeresultsthatwehadobtained.
4.1EmissionsandEfficiency
Afterlookingatmanydifferenttypesofcars,theircomponents,andhowtheyaremade
wesawthateverycarisnotequal. Theyallvaryinhowmuchenergygoesintomakingthem,
howmuchpollutantsareproducedwhilemakingthemandhowefficienttheyactuallyare
whendriving.
4.1.1EnergyConsumptionforManufacturingVehicles
Afterallthecalculationsforenergyconsumptionhadbeenmade,thevalueswere
graphedasameansofcomparison,seeFigure10. Thegraphshowsthat,forprimarymaterial
use,allofthehybridcarsstudiedconsumedmoreenergyintheirmanufacturingprocesses. In
somecasethehybridsconsumed40%moreenergythanthebaselineICE. Thisisbecauseof
the
high
amounts
of
energy
needed
to
process
larger
amounts
of
materials
such
as
aluminum,
copperandthingsthatwouldfallintotheOthercategory. Itakesfiveandahalftimesthe
energytoprocessaluminumcomparedtosteel. ThesteeltoaluminumratioforanICEis
almost11:1,whilesomehybridshavea1:1ratio,leadingtoveryhighenergyconsumption.
Higheramountsofmagnesiumandnickelinhybridsalsoaddtotheincreasedlevelsofenergy
needed.
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Figure10:EnergyConsumptionforManufacturingVehicles
Thegraphshowsthattheuseofrecycledmaterialsisamuchmorefeasiblewaytomake
hybrids
efficiently.
If
possible,
using
100%
recycled
materials
would
lead
to
all
of
the
cars
studiedbeingclosetoequalinenergyconsumption.Thisismainlyduetothefactthatallofthe
mainenergyconsumingprocesseswhichcausedhybridtousesomuchenergyaremuchmore
efficientwhenusingsecondarymaterial.Forexample,secondaryprocessingofmagnesiumonly
consumes10%oftheenergyneededforprimaryprocessing.
4.1.2CO2EmissionsResultingManufacturingVehicles
TheamountofCO2emissionsassociatedwithvehiclemanufacturingisdirectlyrelated
tohow
much
energy
is
consumed
during
their
production.
Many
of
the
primary
ways
of
producingenergyemitlargeamountsofCO2intotheatmosphere. Again,theuseofsecondary
materialsprovestobemuchbetterfortheenvironmentwhencomparedtousingfreshraw
material. Figure11,below,showstheCO2emissionsrelatedtomanufacturingvehicles. Note
thesimilaritiestoFigure10intheprevioussection.
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
EnergyConsumption(M
J/car)
TypeofCar
EnergyConsumptionforManufacturingVehicles
Useof
Primary
MaterialOnly
UseofSecondary
MaterialOnly
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Figure11:CO2EmissionsResultingManufacturingVehicles
4.4.3BreakEvenPoints
Thebreakevenpointcalculationsforthreeoftodayspopularcarstoldusalotabout
boththeir
efficiency
and
their
consumer
value.
The
data
shows
that
the
best
performing
car
was2010FordFusionHybrid,however,wearenotcomparingthiscartoothers,buttoanon
hybridmodelofitself,seeFigure12below.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
CO2Emission(KgC)/Car
TypeofCar
CO2 EmissionsResultingfromtheProductionof
AutomobileComponents
UseofPrimary
MaterialOnly
Useof
Secondary
MaterialOnly