9/11 and the post-9/11 strategic environment 16, 202–5, 211
17 February Brigade see Bu Katif, Fawzi
17 February Coalitions 73–417 February revolution see Uprisings1969 Revolution (aka The al-Fateh
Revolution or The Great September Revolution) 23–4, 31, 36, 176, 185
Abdul-Jalil, Mustafa (Chairman of the NTC) 45, 71, 130, 162, 209, 213–15
Abdul-Nasser, Gamal (President of Egypt 1956–1970) 24–5, 194–5 see also Nasserism
Abu Salim Prison massacre 21, 42–5, 93, 204–7
families of victims 21, 42–3, 45see also al-Senussi, Abdullah
(perpetrator) and Terbil, Fathi (advocate on behalf of the victims)
Accountability 231Activism, civil 11, 23–45Afghanistan 10, 18, 40, 118,
128–9, 139, 200–4, 211–13, 222–3
Africa, sub-Saharan 104–5, 116, 134, 148, 176–8
African Union (AU), attempts at mediation between Qadhafi and rebels by the 124, 128, 133–5, 148, 227
Agriculture 85, 89
Ajdabiyya 29, 113, 116, 151, 158, 161, 212, 220
Algeria 17, 19, 38, 103–4, 135, 177, 181, 185, 222
Al-Jazeeracoverage of Islamists 74, 124,
192, 194, 204, 214, 224platform for Libyan rebels 74, 79,
124, 183, 207Qadhafi’s attitude towards 79
Allen, Sir Mark 203Allies see Coalition of anti-Qadhafi
powers and NATOAlliot-Marie, Michèle (Foreign
Minister of France 2010–11) 118
Al-Qaeda 17, 40, 97, 100affiliates with bases in the new
Libya 17alleged connection with Darna
brigades 206–11links with the LIFG 201–6offshoots in West Africa 103–4see also Al-Qaeda in the Islamic
MaghrebAl-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb
(AQIM) 97, 100, 103, 110Amazigh (Berbers) 12, 36–8,
66–8, 92, 157, 160, 175–7, 186–7, 213
antagonization of by Qadhafi 12, 36–8
religion of 37, 55, 81, 177rising up of 209see also Identity, Amazigh and
Ibadhism
Inde x
I n de x234
Ambassador J. Christopher Stevens see Stevens, Ambassador J. Christopher
Amirateof Darna 210–11Sanussi of Cyrenaica 56
Ancien regimes 1, 3–5, 73, 164, 229Anglo-American cooperation
agreement over détente with Libya (2003–10) 118
joint proposal about reconciliation over Lockerbie 90
Ansar al-Sharia 17, 76, 222Anticolonialism 176–7, 187 see also
Colonialism, legacy ofAouzou Strip 38, 179Arab League
landmark statement (of 12 March 2011) 116–17, 123
support of No-Fly Zone (NFZ) 7, 14, 116–17, 123, 129–30, 140, 144–6
Arab Nationalismdeath/decline of 2, 116spread of to Libya from
Egypt 10, 24–5see also Nasserism and Abdul-
Nasser, GamalArab Spring
differences inherent to Libyan manifestation of 5–7, 97
heightened expectations caused by 127, 207
Muslim Brotherhood response to 216–17
organizations created by 70–1origin and validity of the
term 19–20spread of to Libya 114–16unique features of 1–5Western diplomacy towards 118see also Uprisings and Egypt and
TunisiaArab uprisings, concept of 2–3,
19–20
Arab-Israeli dispute1973 Arab-Israeli War 87, 128Libyan role in 126, 128
Arabsfighters in Afghanistan in
the 1980s 102–3Libyans as 176–7
Armscontrol by local militias 19,
66, 69shipment to the rebels by France
and Qatar 127, 137, 148, 216smuggling/proliferation out of
Libya 17, 103see also Embargo and Militias
and MaliArmy
defections of army troops to rebels 45, 67, 161, 212
as an institution 8, 60, 103, 140, 163, 230
Libyan National 5–6, 103, 140, 181
role in federalism issue 166–7role of in opposition to
Qadhafi 30Arus al-Bahr, editor threatened by
Islamists 68‘Asabiyya (group or tribal
solidarity) 14, 128, 159, 161, 168
Assets, Libyancrony privatization of 121freezing of 6, 106investment of by LIA 104issues surrounding the unfreezing
of 138–9, 148nationalization of by RCC 87smuggling of Qadhafian assets
back into Libya 94Awjila oasis 37, 161Awlad Mahmud (tribe) 154Awlad Suleiman (tribe) 158–9, 181–3Azawad (Independent Tuareg State
in Northern Mali) 103, 177 see also Mali
I n de x 235
Bab al-Aziziyya (Qadhafi’s compound)
bombing by NATO 136storming of by rebels 214
Bamako 103 see also MaliBani Walid
as counterrevolutionary force 3, 14–15, 162–5
feud with Misrata 14–15as ignored by NTC 142last siege of by rebels (Sept/Oct
2011) 54, 156, 159, 160, 181as outside the control of the post-
Qadhafi government 18overt conflict with NTC post-
Qadhafi 162–5as part of Qadhafi support
base 58, 152, 154–5see also Warfalla and Coup, by
Warfalla Officers (in 1993)Barclays, as Central Bank of Libya
during the BMA 86Barqa Conference (on 6
March 2012 advocating for Cyrencaican federalism) 59, 83, 166–7
Barqa see CyrenaicaBarrels per day, Libyan production
of (million b/d) 87–8, 91, 97, 117 see also Oil
Bashir, Muhammad (leader of revolutionary Warfalla 28 May Brigade) 155, 163–4
Basic People’s Congress (BPC) 25–7, 47–8, 73
Bay’a (allegiance) 29, 48Bayda 10, 66–7, 92, 157, 210
as administrative center during the Monarchy 10
Ben Ali, Zine Al-Abidinecollapse of his regime 45, 114,
118, 128, 143–4half-hearted reforms by 4role of institutions in his
regime 5–6, 97see also Tunisia
Ben Gdara, Farhat 133 see also Central Bank of Libya (CBL)
Benghazi17 February Coalition in 73–5as administrative center during
the Monarchy 10American bombing of (in 1986)
29–30attack on Christopher Stevens
see Stevens, Ambassador J. Christopher
as both center and periphery 10Bulgarian nurses scandal in 42,
142cartoon riots in 43, 93demographics of 32 see also
Populationelection of local council in 73and federalism 59, 102formation of rebel organizations
in 68–71, 77, 118, 128–33, 136, 156–7
influx of Westerners to during the uprisings 63, 118–20, 122, 138
Islamists in 76, 201, 209–19localism in 66–7militias in 124participation in BPCs 27political liberalization in 42, 49Qadhafi’s threat to destroy and
NFZ to protect 113–16, 126–7, 130, 144
Qatari links with 123–4start of the uprisings in 5–7,
21, 43–6, 92–3, 113, 206–9, 219–20
as traditional locus of anti-Qadhafi opposition 21, 40–2, 154
university in 32, 34, 199, 218 see also Qar Yunis
see also killing of Younis (al-Obeidi), Abdul Fattah
Berbers see Amazigh (Berbers)Berlusconi, Silvio (Prime Minister
of Italy) 121–3
I n de x236
Bernard-Henri Lévy (BHL) see Lévy, Bernard-Henri
Bevin-Sforza Plan see British Military Administration and Independence, Libyan (1951)
Bilhajj, Abdul-Hakimcompetition with Salafists 221connection with Qataris 76,
125, 137failure of his Homeland
Party 80, 125, 137, 215legal proceedings against British
government 203and the LIMC/LIFG 65,
205–6, 212–14release from prison and
reconciliation with Qadhafi regime 41, 204, 208
shift of focus to Syria 216and the Tripoli Military
Council 66, 124, 192, 214Bin Khayal, Ashur (NTC Interim
Libyan Foreign Minister) 104Birth rate 86 see also Population,
demographicsal-Bishti, Shaykh Muhammad (and
his disappearance in 1980) 39–40, 194
Blair, Tony 119–20BMA see British Military
AdministrationBottom-up organization of
uprisings 1Bouazizi, Mohamed, immolation of
see Arab SpringBrak 155, 181, 201 see also Wadi
al-ShatiBrega, Marsa 113, 132, 136, 215Brigade, revolutionary see MilitiasBritain, see United KingdomBritish Military Administration
(BMA) of Libya (1943–51) 9–10, 56, 86, 229
British Petroleum (BP) 98, 120Brutality 1, 5, 35, 78, 205, 229
Bu Katif, Fawzi (Leader of the 17 February Brigade) 124, 218, 219
Bulgarian Nurses Scandal see Benghazi, Bulgarian nurses scandal in
Bureaucracy 3–6, 8–9, 18, 20, 25, 59–60, 113, 140, 230
Bush, George W. 121, 129Business
American in Libya 86–8, 120–1conducted by Saif al-Islam 33–4debates over the role of
Western 20–1French in Libya 117–18German in Libya 120Italian in Libya 122lack of private sector 90–1Libyan in Dubai 125–6probusiness orientation of
NTC 71with the Qadhafi regime
20–1, 63Qatari in Libya 98, 125Tunisian in Libya 98, 104see also Foreign direct
investment and Projects and Infrastructure
Businessmenreputation of Libyan 98–9supporting Saif al-Islam 203Western visiting Libya 6, 118,
143–4
Cameron, David 119–20Capacity building (assistance
offered to Libya) 80, 105, 115, 142–3, 138, 217
Capitalism, unique Libyan version of (aka “People’s Capitalism”) 26, 92
Censorship, under Qadhafi 199Center and periphery, Pack’s
concept of 5–6, 9–12, 15, 17, 21–2, 64–7, 69–70, 80,
I n de x 237
106, 124–5, 140–3, 152, 168, 186–7, 215, 232
ascendency of the periphery over the center 5, 9, 15, 125, 152, 186–7, 215
new center in Benghazi 6, 9potential for harmony
between 17, 66, 232recreation of historical
relationships of 9–12, 64see also Periphery (in Pack’s
concept of center and periphery)
Central Bank of Libya (CBL) 86, 106, 133, 148
Chadborder security and smuggling
issues with 103, 178–83immigration from 179–80Libyan confrontation with (over
the Aouzou strip) 38relationship with the Tubu
of 178–83Charismatic leadership 1, 23, 199,
232China
LIFG members fleeing to 202stance on Libya NFZ 13,
116–17, 141Civil Society
activists 5, 6, 76–8, 99, 192, 208–9organization of 5–6, 12, 24–5,
31, 59, 74, 76–9, 99, 101, 186–7, 208–9, 217–18
Qadhafi’s destruction of 31, 46, 79–80, 97, 99, 186, 200
Civil State (dawla ma’adaniyya) 65–6, 75
Civil WarArab-Berber civil war (1919–22) 9concept of the uprisings as a 6,
14, 36, 38, 142, 151, 168–9tribal dimension 151–4, 156–61,
165, 168–9see also Uprisings
Civiliansprotection of as pretext for
intervention 93, 115–17, 135–6, 144 see also Responsibility to Protect (R2P)
Qadhafian attacks on xvi, 1, 93, 115–17
Clinton, Hillary 116Coalition
of anti-Qadhafi powers (NATO-led) 98, 115–25, 128–30, 132–19, 142–3 see also NATO
of Islamist actors 215–16, 219of tribes led by Warfalla (anti-
NTC) 152, 165“Coalition of the willing” 129Collective Punishment 35, 201Colonialism, legacy of 37 see also
AnticolonialismCommunication, ease of 1, 136,
205–6Communities see LocalismConservative forces (inside Qadhafi
regime) see Hard-linersConstitution
1951 precedent 75, 99–101direct election of Constitutional
Assembly 10, 12, 20–2, 75discussion of by Saif al-Islam 34,
197draft version of (i.e., the
TCD) 69–70, 83, 101, 110, 131, 147–9
Islamists and the 224recognizing the Berber language
in the 68timetable for 10, 18, 139, 187transition to permanent version
of 10, 12, 69, 75, 101, 105, 110, 187, 231
Contact Group, Libya 130, 132, 138, 148
Contingency Plans 114, 139Continuities, of Libyan
History 12–13, 53–81
I n de x238
Contracts 88, 91, 98, 120–2Corruption
of Imperialists in Libya 229of Qadhafi regime 4–5, 12, 33,
92–5, 97, 114, 229, 230of rebels and transitional
authorities 79, 94–5, 109, 139Counteroffensive, major Qadhafian
(6–17 March 2011) xvi, 13–14, 113–15
Counterproliferation see ArmsCounterrevolutionary forces 161,
165–6, 168Counterterrorism
erroneous assumptions by analysts of 210–15
Libyan role in 203Coup
1975 anti-Qadhafi coup 24contemplated by Hizb
al-Tahrir 194popular uprisings in Egypt and
Tunisia as similar to 5–7Qadhafi’s 1 September 1969 23,
25, 28by Warfalla Officers (in 1993)
30, 36, 59, 155, 163Cretz, Ambassador Gene 121, 227Cultural conservatism 166Culture
contact with the West 33, 62as empowering the periphery
against the center 10–11of entitlement 13, 94–6Libyan 18–19, 37, 64, 78–80,
101, 176, 186, 221tribal 59
Customary Law (‘urf) 153Cyrenaica
artificial amalgamation into United Kingdom of Libya (in 1951) 2
guerilla war in (mid-1990s) 16, 39, 41–2
NTC administration of 6
organization of opposition to Qadhafi 12, 30–1, 36–7, 41–2, 45
roots of Islamist sentiment in 42–3
separatist movements in 2, 18–19, 59–60 see also Federalism
support for the Sanussi regime 10, 24, 28, 30–1, 56–8
tensions with Tripolitania 9, 39terrorist training camps in 17tribes in see Tribe and Sa’adi
tribes and Majlis Hukama’Cyrenaican Defense Force
(Praetorian guard of King Idriss) 58
Da’wa 200Darfur 133Darna 19, 40, 67, 102, 143–4,
156–7, 207–8as a center of Islamist
resistance 210–11, 226vis-à-vis Abdul-Fattah
Yunis 66–7, 215Davis, John 48, 151, 169“Day of Rage” 21, 45, 93Decentralization
calls for further during the uprisings 2, 67, 77, 102–3, 107
under Qadhafi regime 31, 64Defections (from Qadhafian
officials to the rebels) 93, 113, 130, 133, 154, 209 see also Rebels, organization of
Defenseinstitutions of 69No Fly Zone favoring the 6Qadhafi’s air defenses 126–7,
130rebel’s Ministry of 8, 164, 181,
218sales 118, 122see also Younis, Abdul-Fatteh
I n de x 239
DemocracyIslamist accommodation
with 64–6, 75–6progress towards 4, 17, 43,
64–6, 76–7, 79–80, 216Qadhafi’s version of direct
23–7, 99Democratization 43, 79–80Demographics see Population and
demographics of LibyaDeradicalization schemes of
initiated by Saif al-Islam see Reconciliation, of former jihadists with Qadhafi regime
Détente see Reconciliation, between Qadhafi regime and the West
Development see Economy, development of
Diaspora, Libyan 1, 4, 19, 96, 124, 131
Diplomacy (surrounding UN Resolution 1973) 115, 129
Disarmament 114, 160Disconnected uprisings see
Multiplicity of uprisingsDissidents, anti-Qadhafi 33, 124
see also Exiles, LibyanDiversification, of Libyan economy
62, 89–91, 93, 95–6, 103–6Doctrine, Obama 114Doha (role in supporting rebels and
Islamists) 123–5, 131, 138, 197, 216 see also Qatar
Dubai 125
Economic Development Board 131Economy
development of 65, 69, 77, 86–9, 91, 95, 99, 101, 105–7, 119, 125, 131, 187
global 24, 65liberalization 31–2, 34, 62, 91, 120Libyan 5, 12–13, 18, 25, 31–2,
34, 62, 85, 89, 91, 93, 95–6, 98–9, 103, 105–7, 120
market 4–5, 99Ministry of 91, 201reconstruction 59, 69, 80, 99,
106, 138–9, 142, 230reforms of 4–5, 9, 20, 90, 95, 99,
106, 203sanctions impact on 11, 31–3,
63, 88, 90, 93, 106, 116–17, 123, 138, 141, 184, 231
see also Diversification, of Libyan economy
Education 24, 32–4, 86, 89, 94, 96, 105, 120
Egyptborder issues with 103,
162, 178as catalyst of events in Libya 21,
45, 92, 114, 126–7, 206–7as exporter of Arab
nationalism 9–10, 24flee of refuges towards 116French government reaction to
revolution in 118–19jihadist elements 200–2LIFG operation in 212–13Qatari ties with 124role in diplomacy (over
Resolution 1973) 135similarities/differences with
Libyan uprisings 5–6, 70, 96–7, 100, 128, 193, 209–10, 223
spread of Brotherhood ideas and tactics to Libya via 196–8, 217–20
Elites, Libyan 8, 28, 43, 62, 166, 203
Élysée Palace, The 118Embargo, on arms 116Embassy
attack on the American (11 September 2012) see Stevens, Ambassador J. Christopher
Yvonne Fletcher shooting outside the Libyan 119
I n de x240
Employmentfor former militiamen 8public sector 93for youth in 114see also Unemployment
Energy 63, 88, 120–2 see also OilENI (Italian Oil Company) 121–3,
145–6Entitlement see SubsidiesEPSA see Exploration and
Production-Sharing Agreements
Europe 41–3, 63, 86, 94, 98, 104, 120–2, 126, 129, 131, 134, 205, 214 see also individual European country entries and European Union, the
European Union, the 42, 43, 121, 129
Exiles see Diaspora, LibyanExpatriates, Western in
Libya 143–4 see also Diaspora, Libyan
Exploration and Production-Sharing Agreements (EPSA) 88, 91
Exportsof Libyan hydrocarbons 87–8,
90, 106, 117, 122, 162Tunisian to Libya 104
Extremism, see Islamic Extremism
Facebook 19, 21, 97, 206–8, 216Fahkih, Mohamed (Anti-Qadhafi
salafi-jihadi insurgent) 198–9Fascism 56al-Fateh Revolution 47
see also 1969 revolutionFatimid Empire 26, 55Fatwas
against abandoning violent jihad 201
against Qadhafi 198against the rebels 220as a way of studying changes in
Libyan Islamism 222–3
Federalismcalls for 66–7, 166contemporary debates about 59implications of 18, 106–7Islamist opposition to 67legacy of (1951–1963) 59, 102Liberal opposition to 77tribal support for 166see also Cyrenaican, Federalists
and Al-Sanussi, Ahmad ZubairFekini, Anwar 131, 159Fekini, Muhammad 42Females see Women and Women’s
rightsFighters see ThuwwarFinance
access to by NTC via Temporary Finance Mechanism 137–8
of arms shipments by Qatar 137NTC ministry of 77, 94, 102,
105–6, 108–10Five-Year Plans 88–9Fletcher, Yvonne 119Foreign businesses, in Libya
difficulties of 33, 120 see also Business
Foreign direct investment (FDI) 17, 95, 203
Foreign goods, import of 89, 137Foreign interference in Libya post-
Qadhafi 79–81, 139, 180Foreign policy
centrality of anticolonial rhetoric to Qadhafi’s 187
and Libyan self-perceptions 80Qadhafi’s towards Africa 38,
177, 179, 185Qatar’s 123Sarkosy’s 118
Francecolonialism in Africa 176economic relations with
Libya 117–18French revolution 3–4interests in post-Qadhafi
Libya 80
I n de x 241
primary role in enforcing NFZ 13–14, 114–18, 122, 129, 133–4
Frattini, Franco (Italian Foreign Minister 2008–11) 122, 145–6
Free Markets see MarketsFree Officers 24–5, 28, 31Friendship Treaty, Italo-Libyan
(2008) see Treaty of Friendship, Italo-Libyan (2008)
FROLINAT (National Liberation Front of Chad), Qadhafi support of 38, 179 see also Chad
al-Gama’a al-Islamiyya (Egyptian jihadist Group) 201–2
Gar Younis see Qar Yunis UniversityGDP/GNP 88–9, 93, 105–6General People’s Congress
(GPC) 25, 35, 91–2Germany
abstention on Resolution 1973/opposition to NFZ 13, 116, 129
economic role in Libya 120role in post-Lockerbie
sanctions 63similarity of Qadhafian economy
to Nazi version 46–7Ghadames 15, 163, 172, 176–7,
185–6, 189Ghanem, Shukri (Reformist Prime
Minister of Libya 2003–6) 33–4, 91–2, 133
Gharyan 138, 160Ghat 38, 177, 181, 184Ghuqah, Abdul-Hafiz (also known
as Ghoga, Abdelhafiz) 207, 209
Gibril, Mahmoud see Jibril, Mahmoud
Glasnost 4Globalization 33Grand Mufti, Qadhafi’s abolition
of 194
Grassrootsconflict resolution 162evangelism (da’wa) 200political mobilization 16–17, 65,
218–19, 221social work 16–17, 218uprisings 1
Great Britain see United KingdomGreat Man-Made River see WaterGreen Book, The 26, 57, 60,
92, 195Green Square (Martyr’s
Square) 209Guest Workers (in Libya) 104, 116Gulf States 63, 138
Hamas 197, 217–18Hard-liners (anti-reform Qadhafi
officials) 41, 91, 121Hasawna 158, 165, 181Hiftar, Khalifa (Temporary Chief of
Staff of Rebel Forces) 215Hijab 198Historical imaginary 165Hizb al-Tahrir (HT) 16, 193–6,
197, 198, 224Homeland Party (Watan Party)
see Bilhajj, Abdul-Hakim, failure of his Homeland Party
Housing 32, 89, 92–7role of as a precursor to the 17
February revolution 114, 143–4
Human Rightsabuses 134, 139groups emergence in post-
Qadhafi 78Human Rights Watch 35, 171protests by activists for 1, 92–3,
208–9reform 4–5, 32UN Human Rights
Commission 114, 131uprisings led leadership by
activists for 72–3, 76, 206–11see also Terbil, Fathi and Torture
I n de x242
Humanitarianaid/supplies 123, 131, 137–8,
188civil society groups 78emergency support 116, 139rationale for military
intervention 13–14, 114–15, 117–19, 142
al-Hurrati, Madhi (Head of Tripoli Brigade) 213–15
Hydrocarbons 13, 63, 87, 91, 93, 96–8, 105–6
Ibadhism 37, 55, 81 see also Amazigh (Berbers)
Ibrahim, Khalil (Leader of JEM) 133
Ibrahim, Saleh (pro-regime Warfalla leader) 155
IdentityAmazigh 37–8, 50, 160documents (lacked by certain
groups) 185Libyan 57–8, 61, 176, 186–7politics surrounding 39, 54, 77,
186–7tribal 39, 58, 61, 101see also Arabs, Libyans as
Ideology see Qadhafian IdeologyIkhwan al-Muslimin see Muslim
BrotherhoodImazighen (Berbers) see AmazighIMF see International Monetary
Fund (IMF)In Amenas, attack on gas facilities
at 17, 103–4, 222Independence, Libyan (in 1951)
28, 57, 85–6, 181India 13, 71, 102, 116, 135Industrial sector, the Libyan 85,
87, 88–90, 163Infitah 4, 90 see also ReformsInfrastructure 8, 10, 13, 65, 95,
98, 105, 117, 121, 132, 137, 139, 187, 222
Institutions 5–6, 14, 27, 29, 30, 39, 59–60, 93, 127, 151, 153–4, 156, 158, 163, 167, 200
building of 3, 11, 22, 70–1, 78, 80, 99, 101, 230
Libyan lack of 3, 8, 10, 23–4, 29, 46, 58, 62, 69, 78, 132, 194
Insurgency 6, 49Intellectuals, Libyan 34, 72, 195International assistance 14, 80,
124–5, 137–8, 140, 142 see also Capacity building
International community 63, 114–15, 117, 142, 216, 229
International Crisis Group (ICG), report of 143, 170, 172, 188
International Monetary Fund (IMF) 106
Internetopposition 78, 196role in the uprisings 45, 156, 207spread of in Libya 78, 97, 207use of by the Brotherhood 74use of by tribes 156
Interventionaerial by NATO in the Libyan
uprisings 13–14, 44, 79, 114–44, 216
African opposition to 133–5Arab League calling for 115–16,
129–30calculations
surrounding 115–22, 126–9hypothetically on behalf of the
Tubu 183lack of an international
contingency plan for 114–15lessons from Libya 128LIFG position towards 223risk of 126–9
Iran 1, 4, 20, 126, 202, 213Iraq 98, 127–9, 135, 139, 210–12,
223Irish Republican Army (IRA) 119
I n de x 243
Islamidentity politics of 56, 64–8,
192–4institutions of 23, 99–100practice of 13, 39, 40, 55, 57, 77,
81, 97, 198–200, 221–3Qadhafi’s conception of 26, 100rhetoric against 43role in the uprisings of 2, 12,
74–6, 191–3Islamic Amirate at Darna 210–11Islamic extremism 14, 40–1, 57,
65, 75–6, 211, 222Islamic Movement for Change
(led by Abdul-Hakim BilHajj) 66, 205–6, 212
Islamism, ideology of 77, 191, 193, 200
Islamists 3, 8, 12, 16, 18, 41, 57, 65–8, 74–8, 81, 103, 124, 191–223, 231 see also Libyan Islamic Fighting Group and Muslim Brotherhood and Salafists
al-Islam, Saif see Qadhafi, Saif Al-Islam
Isolation, of Qadhafi’s Libya 13, 33, 90, 141, 231
Israel 68, 87 see also Arab-Israeli dispute, Libyan role in
Issawi, Ali 71, 209Italy
colonial legacy of 45, 56, 229cultural impact on Libya 43economic interests in Libya 80,
120–2role during sanctions period 63role in diplomacy surrounding
the NFZ 13, 63, 115, 120–2, 133
Jabal Nafusa see Nafusa MountainsJacobin tendency 3, 12, 19al-Jahmi, Fathi (prominent anti-
Qadhafi dissident) 35
Jalil see Abdul-Jalil, MustafaJamahiriyya 5–6, 10–11, 17, 23–6,
28, 33, 40, 43, 124, 176, 181, 187Jibril, Mahmoud
connections with Qatar and UAE 124–5
as head of EDB 34, 131as head of NFA 77, 167, 219popular opposition towards 65,
219as Prime Minister 71, 131–2,
209, 216, 218, 227Jihad
anti-Italian 9, 56, 210anti-Ottoman 182anti-Qadhafi 198, 201–2, 204concept of 204, 206, 225in Iraq and Afghanistan 210–11,
216West African 104see also Jihadism
Jihadism 40–1, 200, 210, 214, 226–8, 231
Jobs, creation of 8, 18–19, 96Jordan 35, 130, 132, 135,
218–19Judiciary 7, 68, 95, 159–62Jumail 160Justice and Construction Party
(al-Adala wa al-Bina’a) 65, 75, 167, 219
Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), Qadhafi sponsorship of 133
Justice system 7, 70, 96, 102, 161–3, 165, 168
al-Juwaili, Usama (NTC Defense Minister) 164
al-Khatib, Abdul-Ilah (UN Special envoy for negotiations between Qadhafi and the rebels)135
al-Kib, Abdul-Rahman (Prime Minister of NTC post-Liberation) 142, 166, 218
I n de x244
el-Kikhia, Mansour Omar 29, 48Kim Jong-Il 4Kufra
as a case study 15, 176, 178–81Sudanese occupation of 138tribal politics/uprisings in 151,
157–8, 161, 163, 176, 178–81, 183, 186–7, 188
Tubu in 38, 178–81voting in 186–7
al-Kuni, Afnayt (Senior Tuareg tribal leader) 155
al-Kuni, Amid Hussain (Former Governor of Ghat) 184
al-Kuni, Musa (Tuareg representative on NTC) 155, 183–4, 186
Kusa, Musa (Head of External Security 1994–2009 and Foreign Minister 2009–2011) 133
Laden, Osama bin 202–3, 225“Leading from behind” see Obama
doctrineLebanon
historic opposition to Qadhafi 116, 126
support of NFZ 116Legitimacy
constitutional 149Islamic 57, 64, 197–8, 211Jamahiriyyan 24, 41, 58, 209NTC 8, 83, 101–2reforms to buttress 3–4revolutionary 12, 72, 74Sanussi 56, 58social contract 63tribal role in 30, 58, 60–1
Levinson, Charles 83, 146–7, 210, 227
Liberal interventionism 115–16, 144Liberalization 31, 34, 40, 42–3,
46, 90–1, 121, 207–8“Liberals”, Libyan 8, 65, 81, 191,
200, 216 see also National Forces Alliance
Libya Shield Force 8, 163, 181Libyan Investment Authority
(LIA) 104, 110, 148Libyan Islamic Fighting Group
(LIFG and LIMC) 16, 65, 212–16, 219
origins of 16, 40–1, 201rejection of al-Qaeda 202relationship with Qadhafi 100,
197, 201, 202–8, 210–11 see also Refutations (muraja’at)
role of in the transition period 65–6, 215–16, 219–21
role of in the uprisings 76, 193, 211–15, 216, 222–3
see also Bilhajj, Abdul Hakim and Sallabi, Ali and Thuwwar, contribution of LIFG to
Libyan Islamic Movement for Change (LIMC) see Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG and LIMC)
Libyan Nationalism 26, 213Libyan Uprisings, The 2011
see UprisingsLobbying 129, 133, 155, 166Lockerbie (bombing) 31, 33, 63,
90, 119London School of Economics
(LSE), Saif al-Islam’s pursuit of a Phd at the 33
“Losers of the uprisings”, alliance of 164–5
Loyalists forcesmovements of xvi-xviii, 130,
136, 133, 219 see also counteroffensive
strongholds of 3, 54, 68, 155, 163–4, 178, 181, 184–5
Madhhab 55Magarha see MaqarhaMaghawir Brigade (pro-regime
Tuareg force) 155–6, 184Maghreb see North Africaal-Magrief, Mohammad (First
President of the GNC) 196
I n de x 245
Mahmoud, Suleiman (commander of the Tobruk military region) 154
al-Mahmudi, Baghdadi (Qadhafi’s hard-line Prime Minister of Libya) 92, 96, 160
Majalis Hukama’ (councils of tribal, religious, and urban notables) 14, 158, 162, 166
Malieffects of Libyan uprisings on 17,
103–4, 134, 140, 222Qadhafi’s relationship
with 183–5Tuareg of 38, 155, 177see also Azawad
Maliki Islam 55, 81Malta 122, 126, 131Mansour, Issa Abdul-Majid
(Founder of Tubu Front for Salvation of Libya) 158, 178, 180, 183
Maqarha (tribe) 10, 58, 62, 155, 158, 165, 171–2, 181–2, 204
Markets, free 4Mashashiyya 14, 157, 160, 163, 165Matar, Hisham (Author of In the
Country of Men) 25Media
freedom and censorship 33–4, 79, 99, 199, 230
Islamists in the 16, 74–5, 124, 192, 203–4, 210–11, 214, 216–17, 220, 222–3
Tubu activism in the 183use in the uprisings 1, 141, 151,
206–7, 210–11Western 100, 156, 175see also Al-Jazeera and Internet
and radio address and TVal-Meera Consumer Goods
Company 98al-Megrahi, Abdul-Basset (convicted
Lockerbie suspect) 119, 145Middle East and North Africa
(region) 43, 104, 116, 123, 134, 197, 202
Military see ArmyMilitias
abuses and corruption by 94, 96demobilization and disarmament
of 19, 101–2, 139–41destabilization caused by 17,
68, 73, 159–60, 163–5, 186, 215, 222
fighting during the uprisings by 8, 115, 123–4, 136–9, 143, 178, 216
mobilization of 7, 11, 14, 46, 124, 151, 155–8, 213–14, 218
political function of 9, 12, 14, 65, 69–70, 80, 142, 159, 166–8, 190, 219
transitional government’s use of 163–4, 180–1
see also 17 February Coalitions and Bilhajj, Abdul-Hakim and Bu Katif, Fawzi and Libyan Islamic Fighting Group and Rebels
al-Mismari, Idris 45, 207Mobilization
demobilization 14, 115grassroots 113Islamist 194military 16, 156–7political 154tribal 151–2, 159, 161, 168
Moghrebi, Zahi (Libyan Intellectual) 34, 46, 74, 83
Monarchy, the Sanussi see Sanussi Monarchy
Morocco 126, 218Morsi, Muhammad 196Mosque 39, 74–5, 136,
194–222Mouvement National de
Libération de l’Azawad (MNLA) 103–4
Mu’tasim Billah Qadhafi see Qadhafi, Mu’tasim Billah
Mubarak, Hosni 4, 21, 45, 97, 128, 207, 220
Mukhtar, Omar see Omar Mukhtar
I n de x246
Multiplicity of the uprisings 2–3, 12, 70–1, 113, 127–9, 140, 142, 175, 192, 209
Murzuq 158, 178, 181, 183, 189Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan
al-Muslimin)electoral presence via JCP 65–6,
167, 191, 216–19, 223 see also Justice and Construction Party
as an internationalist movement 2
position in Qadhafi’s Libya 16, 40–1, 74–5, 100, 127–8, 193, 195–200
role in the uprisings 16–17, 57, 64–5, 74–5, 81, 167, 193, 208, 212, 216–19, 223, 231
Nafusa Mountainsdemographics of 36–7, 55, 58, 67Italian colonial period in 9, 131post-Qadhafi politics in 168uprisings in 38, 93, 103,
136–40, 143, 147, 151, 156–7, 161, 162, 167, 177, 207, 209, 213–14, 219
Nasser, Gamal Abdul see Abdul-Nasser, Gamal
Nasserism 24–5, 194–5National Conference of the Libya
Opposition (NCLO) 75–6National Economic Development
Board see Economic Development Board
National Forces Alliance 61, 77, 81, 125, 127, 167, 219
National Front for the Salvation of Libya (NFSL) 75, 196, 205
National Oil Company (NOC) 92, 97, 133
Nationalism (as a concept) see Arab Nationalism and Libyan Nationalism
Nation-Building 14, 127, 139Nation-State, as focus of Arab
Spring movements 2, 6
Nayed, Arif Ali 125Niger 38, 90, 103, 117, 158,
177–8, 181, 183–5No-Fly Zone (NFZ) 7, 13–14, 75,
93, 114, 116, 121–2, 126–7, 129, 146, 215, 220
Normalization 20–1, 63, 118, 120, 143
North Africa 4, 14, 26, 43–4, 48, 68, 86, 100, 104, 118, 123, 126, 176, 202, 222
existing scholarship on 14, 152Libya as different from the rest
of 4, 43–4similarities of Libya with 48, 55,
176, 202trade within 104
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), role in enforcing the NFZ 7, 44, 53, 79, 98, 122–38, 141, 146–7, 216, 223
North Korea 4, 126NTC see National Transitional
Council
Oasis/Oases 37–8, 161, 177–9, 181, 185
Obama, Barack 114, 121, 144Doctrine of 114
Obeidat (tribe) 66, 154, 161–2, 166, 172
Occidental Petroleum 86–7Oil
boom 62companies 85, 87, 94, 98, 117,
120–4discovery of 85, 88, 93embargo 63, 137infrastructure 113, 124, 137,
154, 162, 187investments 57, 63, 88, 91, 125pipeline 137, 220production 6, 87–8, 91, 98, 106,
139, 142 see also barrels per day and National Oil Corporation
reserves 87, 91, 97
I n de x 247
revenue 24, 86–9share of GDP 93wealth 10, 12–13, 17, 22, 53,
55, 62, 85Omar Mukhtar 45, 56, 182, 213One-Nine Group 33OPEC 33, 87–8, 91Opposition
Islamist 16, 40–1, 75, 124, 127–8, 193, 197, 199–200, 204–11, 218, 227
to the NTC 3, 24, 84to Qadhafi 2, 11, 36, 29, 32, 34,
38, 49, 53, 76–7, 79, 99, 117, 129–34, 177
Ottoman Empire 9–10, 18, 55–6, 182, 229
Palestine 217–19Pan-Am 103 see LockerbiePargeter, Alison 108, 187–8, 210,
224–7Perestroika 4Periphery (in Pack’s concept of
center and periphery)emergence of the power of the
periphery 66, 68–70, 80, 106, 125, 152, 168
inadvertent NATO support of 140origins of the uprising in the 5,
9, 15, 106productive energy of 232 see also
Center and peripheryQatari sponsorship of 125
“Perpetual dynamics” 12, 53–5, 64, 68, 70, 79–81
Personalized political system 24–7, 31, 33, 43
Peters, Emrys 153, 170Petroleum see OilPoland 129Political Parties
Arab Socialist Union 24banning of under Qadhafi 99Justice and Construction
Party 65, 75, 167, 219
National Forces Alliance 61, 77, 81, 125, 127, 167, 219 Homeland Party 80, 125, 137, 215–16
organization of 65–6, 68, 75, 77salafist 221tribal dimension of 167–8
Popular Social Leadership (PSL) 29, 31, 36, 59–60, 82, 166
Populationthe demographics of
Libya 17–18, 32, 27–39, 60, 85–6, 95–102, 154, 157, 175–81, 185, 186
direct democracy by the populace 24–8
the Libyan populace 3, 6, 8–10, 17–18, 37–9, 44, 46, 75, 85, 114, 125–6, 132, 134, 137, 140, 183, 232
Populism 25–6Posted Price (of crude) 86–8Power, Samantha 116, 144Privatization 5, 71, 91–2, 98, 103,
106, 121Projects, infrastructure 8, 17, 34,
59, 64, 89, 94, 104, 114, 121, 143
Propaganda 60–1, 133, 139, 156, 210, 213–14
Public sector 91, 93, 137, 230 see also Employment, Public sector
Public space 42
Qadhadhifa (tribe) 10, 30, 36, 58, 61–2, 155, 158, 165, 181–2
al-Qadhafi Charitable Foundation 33–4, 40, 98, 197
Qadhafi, Hannibal 94Qadhafi, Mu’tasim Billah 120, 203Qadhafi, Muammar
capture and execution of 3, 17, 229
children of 5, 37, 104, 121, 148 see also individual children entries
I n de x248
crack down on rebels 12–15, 61, 71, 79, 93, 113, 127–8, 133, 141
demonstrations against 2, 10, 21, 45–6, 61, 93, 113, 209
ideology of see Qadhafian ideology
threats against Benghazi 114, 116, 130
Qadhafi, Muhammad 94Qadhafi, Mu’tasim Billah 120, 203Qadhafi, Sa’adi 94, 211Qadhafi, Saif al-Islam 6, 11, 31,
33–5, 37, 42–3, 49, 67, 94, 96, 99, 113, 120, 124, 177, 197, 202–3, 205, 207, 209, 211
Qadhafian forces see Loyalist forcesQadhafian Ideology 5–6, 15, 18,
23, 26, 34, 37, 44, 46–8, 57–8, 60, 73, 92, 100, 176–7, 194–5, 224–5
Qaeda, Al see Al-QaedaAbdul-Wahhab al-Qaid 206,
212, 215al-Qaradawi, Yusuf 196–7Qaramanli Dynasty 9Qar Yunis 32, 34Qatar
aid to rebels 122–4, 137, 140, 146, 227
business interests in Libya 98, 125
military and diplomatic role of in enforcement of no-fly zone 7, 13–14, 122–3, 130, 132, 136–7
Qatari Special Forces 123, 136relationship with Islamists 14,
16, 66, 76, 80, 124–5, 192, 196, 206, 212–16, 222, 224
R2P see Responsibility to ProtectRadicalization 102, 227Radio address 114Rajban (tribe and city) 58, 147,
154, 157, 159, 213
Ras Jdeir xvi, 161Ras Lanuf xvii, 125, 161, 113,
212, 220RCC see Revolutionary Command
CouncilRebels
military actions of and support to 7, 14, 103, 113–15, 122–5, 129, 132, 134, 137–8, 155, 215
objectives of 2political organization of 7, 71–2,
93, 101, 113, 118, 119, 130 see also National Transitional Council
Recognition, international of the NTC 6, 104, 115, 117–18, 122–3, 131–2, 164
Reconciliationof former jihadists with Qadhafi
regime 16, 202–6, 212, 225post-Qadhafi attempts
at national/tribal reconciliation 15, 59, 68, 80, 101, 142, 152, 159, 161–3, 182, 186–7 222
between Qadhafi regime and the West (2003–2010) 4, 21, 23, 33–5, 41, 90, 120
Reform processAmerican role in the 120–1economic dimension of 71,
90–2, 95, 99, 106as leading to the uprisings 3–5,
20–1political 197, 207, 232role of Saif al-Islam in the 11,
34, 49, 120, 197, 203–5, 207, 209
Refutations (Muraja’at) 204, 206, 212, 227 see also Libyan Islamic Fighting Group, relationship with Qadhafi
Regime changebest way to achieve 135, 139historic patterns of 98
Qadhafi, Muammar—Continued
I n de x 249
international consensus for 115–18, 135
Libyan protestors demand 93Regionalism 2, 12, 53, 58
see also FederalismReligion 26, 39–41, 53–8, 65, 70,
79–80, 99–100, 198, 225 see also Islam
Remittances 104, 116Rendition 203Reserves see Oil, reservesResponsibility to Protect (R2P) 13,
126Revolution see Uprisings and
France, French revolution and 1969 Revolution
Revolutionaries see ThuwwarRevolutionary Command Council
(RCC) 25, 74, 87–9, 99, 176, 194
Revolutionary Committees Movement (harakat al-lijnat al-thawra) 27–34, 39, 48, 199, 201–3
Rijal al-khayma (Men of the Tent—a term for Qadhafi’s inner circle) 25, 26
Rijdalain 14, 160, 163Rule of Law 17, 102, 208, 229Rules of engagement, NATO 128Russia 1, 13, 116–17, 121, 141–3
al-Sa’adi, Abu Mundir (aka Sami al-Sa’adi, LIFG leader) 203–4, 211
Sa’adi Qadhafi see Qadhafi, Sa’adiSa’adi (tribes) 36–7, 58Sabha
General National Congress election in 167
Qadhafi speech on housing in (13 January 2011) 144
Regime support base in 6, 10, 58, 133, 176
struggle for control of xviii, 181–3, 185–6
tribal politics in 158–61Tuareg in 177Tubu in 15, 38, 178
Saff/Sufuf (tribal blocs) 30, 48, 157, 165
Sahara 15, 38–9, 103–5, 175–87Sahel region 38–9, 103–4, 140,
177–8Sahwa movement 198–200, 202Saif al-Islam Qadhafi see Qadhafi,
Saif al-IslamSaif al-Nasr family (historic heads of
the Awlad Suleiman tribe) 159, 182–3
Salafistsposition under Qadhafi 57,
193, 204rejection of democracy and
electoral fortunes of 64, 100, role in uprisings 19, 191, 213, 220–3
spread as social movement 16–17, 100, 220–1
Salaries 94, 137, 142Sallabi, Ali 41, 64, 124, 197, 212,
214Sanctions
US unilateral 32, 88, 93–4UN (1992–1999) 11, 31–2, 63,
90, 93–4, 117–18, 231UN (2011) 13, 106, 116, 123,
138, 141, 142, 148, 181al-Sanussi, Ahmad Zubair
(figurehead for Cyrenaican Federalists) 166
Sanussi Amirate 56al-Sanussi, Idriss (Head of Sanussi
Order 1916–69 and King of Libya 1951–1969) 21, 56–8
Sanussi Monarchy 9, 21, 24, 27, 31, 36, 39, 56, 224- 225, 229
Sanussi Sufi Order 9–10, 58, 75, 171, 194, 213, 224
Saudi Arabia 87, 123, 126, 197–9, 220–1
I n de x250
Sawan, Muhammad (leader of JCP) 65, 219
Scaroni, Paolo (CEO of ENI) 122Secessionism 59, 184, 186–7Security
post-Qadhafi lack of coherent institutions 13, 15–18, 69, 115, 118, 162–3, 180, 186, 230
provided by militias 8, 141, 167, 180, 214, 218, 222
services under Qadhafi 28, 30, 33, 38–42, 45, 59–60, 138, 154, 158, 177, 179, 181–5, 201, 203–5, 207, 211
situation in post-Qadhafi Libya 8, 13, 17–18, 21–2, 73, 76, 98, 101, 105, 186, 230
Security Council Resolutions see United Nations, Security Council Resolutions 1970 and 1973
al-Senussi, Abdullah (Qadhafi’s Intelligence Chief and Brother-in-Law) 42, 96, 117, 121, 181, 204
Shakir, Yusif (Qadhafi propagandist) 156, 170
Shalgam, Abdul-Rahman 209Shammam, Mahmoud 124Shari ʿa 65, 99–100Shaykhs 29, 39, 123–4, 154, 194,
205, 220–1, 228Shura
councils 159, 204, 206, 208, 213, 216, 218
principle of 64Sinjar Records 210, 226Sirte
advance towards xviii, 113, 136, 138, 213
Basin 36, 39, 86, 179battle for 5, 10, 54, 132,
138, 181Gulf of 29regime power base in 6–7, 58
tribal dynamics of 28, 155–6, 159, 166–7
Social contract see Legitimacy, social contract
Social Networks 1, 78, 80, 97, 194, 221
Social work 16, 217–18Society, atomized 31, 36, 39, 58Souq al-Jum’a 163–4, 192, 215Sovereign Wealth Funds see Libyan
Investment Authority (LIA)Sovereignty 69–70, 72, 77, 83,
104, 117, 123Speech
freedom of 4, 131, 208by Qadhafi encouraging housing
occupations (13 January 2011) 143–4
by Saif Al-Islam (20 February 2011) 6, 49, 209
SpokesmenArab League 117Qadhafian 116Rebel 120, 141
Stalin 4Standard Oil of NJ 86–7Standards of living 4State see Nation-State and
“Statelessness”, (concept of Libyan) and Institutions
State-building 229 see also Institutions, building of
“Statelessness” (concept of Libyan) 17–18, 58, 231–2
Stevens, Ambassador J. Christopherdedication of book to xiii-xvikilling of 17, 76, 222
Struggle for post-Qadhafi Libya 74, 222
Students 32, 49, 102 196, 198–9Subsidies 12, 94–5, 105, 114, 180, 183Sufi Orders and Shrines 55, 76,
100, 220, 228 see also Sanussi Sufi Order
Sunni Islam/Sunni Muslims 26, 55, 57, 81, 97
I n de x 251
Supreme Security Council (SSC) 8, 159, 222
Syria 6, 13, 96, 97, 100, 135, 140, 142, 209, 216
Tahrir Square 5–6, 207–9 see also Egypt
Tajoura 163Tarhouna 156, 165Tarhouni, Ali (NTC Deputy Prime
Minister and Oil and Finance Minister) 77
Tawergha 67Technocrats 8, 11, 18–19, 71, 77,
131, 191–2, 219Television (TV) 1, 123–4, 156, 170,
197, 207, 220 see also Al JazeeraTelevision see TVTemporary Constitutional
Declaration (TCD) see Constitution, draft version of (i.e., the TCD)
Terbil, Fathi (civil rights advocate and spark of the uprisings) 45, 92, 207, 209
Terrorism 16, 88, 120, 203, 210, 222 see also 9/11 and the Post-9/11 strategic environment, counterterrorism
al-Thani, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa (Amir of Qatar) 123
Third Universal Theory see Qadhafian Ideology
Thuwwar (anti-Qadhafi revolutionary fighters)
contribution of LIFG to 16, 137, 213–14, 216, 219
contribution of Misratan 214lack of formal military
training 212local origins and organization
of 123, 137, 157, 159, 160, 163–4, 166, 168–9
numbers during the uprisings 94training of 123
Tibesti Hotel 162
Tibesti Region 38, 179al-Tir, Mustafa (Libyan
intellectual) 60–2, 82Tobruk 123, 154, 157, 159, 162,
166, 207Torture 161, 205, 208, 215Tourism 90, 187Trade 10, 90–1, 95, 104, 117–18,
126, 178, 180–1, 183, 207, 210
Trade Unions 5, 24, 97, 99, 200Tradition
of bay’a 30, 48of justice 7of opposition 21, 201power and 11religious 26, 29, 57, 65, 194 198,
200, 204, 213, 220role of in the uprisings 79Trans-Saharan trade 181, 185–6of tribal organization 36–7, 39,
58, 62, 64, 100–1, 147, 157, 159, 169, 177–9
Training see Capacity buildingTransition
to democracy 12, 59, 66, 68–70, 74, 78, 80, 101, 105, 139, 187, 192, 229, 231–2
period 8, 11, 65, 67, 69, 75–6, 79, 83, 105, 115, 139, 140, 151, 157, 159, 166, 168, 180, 186, 205, 222
Transparency 5, 92, 95, 101, 207–8, 216
Treaty of Friendship, Italo-Libyan (2008) 122
Tribe(s)concept of / definition of 14, 48,
152–3, 187conflict and resolution post-
Qadhafi 3, 14–15, 62, 67–8, 152, 159–65, 182
politics post-Qadhafi including electoral politics 29, 59, 61, 64–7, 70, 81, 152, 165–8, 231
I n de x252
Qadhafi’s use of 10, 23, 27–31, 36–9, 48, 58–61, 93, 99–100, 175–8
role in uprisings 12, 14, 39, 45–6, 53, 61, 72, 101, 130, 142, 151–2, 154–9, 168, 175, 179–82, 192, 203, 209, 215–16, 230
Sanussi Monarchy’s dependence on 24, 28, 58
tribal inversion 28, 36, 58, 182see also individual tribe names
and Identity, tribal and Sa’adi tribes and Tuareg, tribal politics of and Tubu
Tripolias administrative center 10,
118, 140–2 see also Center and periphery
American bombing of (in 1986) 29–30
battle for and fall of 16, 33, 69, 75, 120, 132, 134–9, 191
demographics of 24, 32, 165–6 see also Population
investment in 125militias in 74–6, 124, 137, 157,
163–4, 177, 213–14, 216, 219 see also Bilhajj, Abdul-Hakim, and the Tripoli Military Council
Ottoman control of 9–10 uprising in 5–6, 61, 113, 115, 120, 133, 209, 212
salafists in 219–21University of (Al-Fateh
University) 32–3, 196, 219Tripoli Military Council see Bilhajj,
Abdul-Hakim, and the Tripoli Military Council
Tuaregconflicts with 15, 182, 185–6demography of 177–8regime treatment of 38, 103,
176–7, 184–5
relationship with the NTC 183separatist movement of 103tribal politics of 153, 155–6,
163, 170, 172Tubu
antagonism with Awlad Suleiman 181–3
Qadhafi policy towards 38, 176–9
relationship with the Zwai 15, 157–8, 161, 180–1
role in the uprisings 15, 92, 157–8, 161, 163, 175–87
social structure of 153, 175–6, 187
Tubu Front for the Salvation of Libya (TFSL) 158, 178, 180 183
Tunisiaborder with Libya 161, 185, 213business interests in Libya 98,
104humanitarian role of 116, 131,
136, 217uprisings in 1, 5–7. 9, 44–5, 70,
92, 96–8, 100, 106, 108, 124, 126, 128, 209, 212, 226
TV 79, 123–4, 197, 207, 220, 224
Twitter 97 see also Facebook
Ubari 155, 167, 177, 181, 189Ulama 5, 39, 75, 194, 198, 220Unemployment 96–7, 114, 179 see
also EmploymentUnited Arab Emirates (UAE) 13,
115, 122–5, 130, 132United Kingdom of Libya 102 see
also Independence, Libyan (1951)
United Nations 37, 86, 209assistance 138, 217sanctions 31–3, 63, 90Security Council Resolutions
(1970 and 1973) 13, 44, 114, 116, 129–30, 135
Tribe(s)—Continued
I n de x 253
United States1986 bombing campaign 29–30Ambassador Christopher
Stevens 17, 76business 86–8, 120–1interests of 80, 104intervention 13, 114–15, 117,
127, 130–1, 134Libyan diaspora in 123, 131,
196, 214, 218recognition of the NTC 132, 134relationship with Libya under
Qadhafi 20, 32, 56, 120–1relationship with the LIFG 202,
223sanctions 43, 63, 88, 90, 98, 118support for human rights 35transitional assistance 22, 138, 140
Unity 3, 65, 68, 70, 77, 124, 139, 194
UNSCR see United Nations, Security Council Resolutions 1970 and 1973
UprisingsArab Spring as 1–3, 19–20, 96events in Libya as 1–11, 23,
45–6, 53–4, 59–60, 78, 80, 96, 113, 115–16, 127, 151, 168–9, 182, 206–7, 209, 221–2, 232
alternative histories of 17–19, 157unity/disunity of 61–2, 70–1,
127–9, 140, 142, 175, 192, 209 see also Multiplicity of uprisings
world community surprised by 114, 127
Urbanization 32, 36, 62
Vandewalle, Dirk 22, 46–8, 82, 108–9, 145, 148, 169, 187–9, 224–7
Vendée phenomenon 3, 14–15 see also Bani Walid and Counterrevolution
Vocational training 8, 32, 86
Wadi al-Shati 155, 165–7, 181, 201Wahhabism 75, 193, 197–200,
225Wardagu, Barka 158, 183Warfalla 15, 30, 36, 58–9, 62, 152,
155–6, 163–6“War on Terror” see 9/11 and
the post-9/11 strategic environment
Warriors’ Affairs Committee 94Warshafana 58, 156, 159–60, 162,
165, 167Water, pipeline infrastructure 95,
137Weapons see Armsal-Werfalli, Mabroka (Libyan
intellectual) 27, 47West, the
engagement with Qadhafi 4–5, 11, 20–1, 43–4, 63, 118, 120–1, 143, 203–4
Qadhafi opposing the 23, 72, 176–7, 199, 210, 220
support for the transition 22, 80, 138–40, 142–3
support for the uprisings 1, 13–14, 22, 63, 114, 117–22, 126–33, 141–2, 156
Western Mountain see Nafusa Mountains
Westerwelle, Guido (Foreign Minister of Germany 2009–2013) 129
Wikileaks 94, 121WMD see armsWollenberg, Anja xiii, 146Women and Women’s rights 19, 78,
99–102, 166, 198Workforce, Libyan
see also employment, unemployment 88
World War I 24World War II 9, 85–6
Yemen 2, 10, 97, 220Yifran 154
I n de x254
Youtheconomic prospects of 114identification with Islamists 75opposition to Qadhafi
(in 1970s) 39political organization of 101–2rising up of 5–7, 19, 27, 45,
154–5, 192, 222Yunis (al-Obeidi), Abdul-Fattah
defection from Qadhafi regime 7, 45, 67, 130, 154, 205, 215
implications of death of 6, 66–7, 132, 161–2, 215, 218
al-Zawahiri, Ayman 202Zawiyya 113, 131, 134, 138,
159–60, 162, 166, 168, 207
Zighlam, Hassan 94, 105Zlitan 164, 220Zuma, Jacob 128, 133–5Zuwara 14, 113, 157, 160–1, 163,
168Zwai (tribe) 15, 154, 157–8, 161,
178–81Zwai, Muhammad Abdul-
Qasim 179