Download - Ingredients and Additives in Meat Products
Iowa State University
From the SelectedWorks of Rodrigo Tarté
April 29, 2015
Ingredients and Additives in Meat ProductsRodrigo Tarté, Ph.D., Iowa State University
Available at: http://works.bepress.com/rodrigo_tarte/15/
Rodrigo Tarté, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
Meat Science and Technology
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa, USA
Ingredients and Additives in Meat Products
II International Seminar on Science, Technology and Innovation for the Meat Industry
II Seminário Internacional de Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovações para a Indústria de Carnes
Curitiba, PR, Brazil — 29 April 2015
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 2
Classes of Attributes in Meat Products
• Characterizing Attributes
– Those that make a product what it is
– Often dictated by a standard of identity or other legal definition
• Differentiation
– Those that make a product different unique
– Provides variety and choice
• Safety
– Those that make a product safe to consume
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 3
Purposes of Nonmeat Ingredients in Meat Products
Characterization
Differentiation
Safety
Texture
Flavor
Color
Microbial Control
Cost Control
Nutrition
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 4
Outline
I. Basic Ingredients
II. Hydrocolloids
III. Proteins
IV. Enzymes
V. Flavoring Agents
VI. Fermentation and Acidification Ingredients
VII. Antioxidants
VIII. Antimicrobials
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 5
Basic Ingredients
• Water
• Salt (sodium or potassium chloride)
• Nitrite (sodium or potassium)
• Nitrate (sodium or potassium)
• Phosphates
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 6
Basic Ingredients
Water
• Most abundant component of meat
– 60–70% of total mass
• Functions
– Disperses and dissolves other ingredients
– Contributes to eating quality by
• Helping to control texture
• Aiding in flavor release
• Providing juiciness
– Provides economic benefit (cheapest ingredient there is)
• Water quality is very important (hardness, purity)
• May be limited by legal product definitions
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 7
Basic Ingredients
Salt
• Fundamental in processed meats manufacturing• Functions
– Extraction and solubilization of myofibrillar proteins• Shifts pI (isoelectric point), increasing repulsion between protein
chains• ≈ 4% is needed for adequate function
– Water binding• Cl– ion is critical (therefore, KCl is equally functional)
– Antimicrobial effect• Extends shelf-life• Inhibits many pathogens, but not all (e.g. Listeria monocytogenes and
Staphylococcus aureus are salt-tolerant)• Shifts microbial flora from predominantly gram-negative (e.g.,
Pseudomonas) to predominantly gram-positive (e.g., lactics)
– Flavor enhancement
• Quality is important– Should use high purity, food grade salt
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 8
Salt
Effect on Electrical Charge Distribution of the Myofibril
Source: Wismer-Pedersen, J. (1987). Chemistry of animal tissues: Part 5 – Water. In J. F. Price & B. S. Schweigert (Eds.). The Science of Meat and Meat Products (3rd ed., pp 141–154). Westport, CT: Food & Nutrition Press.
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 9
Basic Ingredients
Curing Salts
• Nitrite is most commonly used
– Nitrate used in systems where it can be reduced to nitrite
• Functions of Nitrite (NO2)
– Organoleptic effects
• Provides characteristic cured meat color and flavor (<5 ppm required for these effects)
• Some textural effect due to protein crosslinking
– Antimicrobial
• Inhibitory activity towards many microorganisms, including Clostridium botulinum
• Synergism with other antimicrobials (e.g., lactate) to control L. monocytogenes
– Antioxidant
• No other single ingredient is known to possess all these unique properties
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 10
Basic Ingredients
Curing Salts
• Must first be converted to nitric oxide
NO3 NO2 NOnitrate
reductasecure
accelerator
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 11
Basic Ingredients
Curing Salts
• Conditions that favor NO formation
1. pH decrease
2NO2- + 2H+ 2HONO NO + NO3
- + 2H+
• pH decrease by 0.2–0.3 units can double reaction rate
• Can add acidulant (e.g. acid phosphate, glucono delta lactone, fumaric acid) to decrease pH
2. Reducing conditions
• Reductants – e.g., ascorbic/erythorbic acid, sodium ascorbate/erythorbate
• Reduced form of meat pigments (Fe2+)
• Sulfhydryl amino acids, via oxidation and crosslinking of sulfhydryl groups
3. Salt
NaCl + NO2- NOCl- NO + Cl-
nitrous acid
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 12
Basic Ingredients
Reductants
• Function
– To accelerate the curing reaction by providing reducing conditions to facilitate reduction of NO2
- to NO
– Also aid in maintaining cured color over storage
• Chemical species:
– Sodium ascorbate or erythorbate (isoascorbate)
– Ascorbic acid or erythorbic (isoascorbic) acid
• All are functionally equivalent, except:
– Ascorbic acid and ascorbate have Vitamin C activity
– Ascorbic acid/erythorbic acid are slightly more reactive than their salts
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 13
Basic Curing Ingredients
Phosphates
• Inorganic salts of phosphoric or polyphosphoric acid
• Obtained by mining of phosphate minerals
• pH and solubility are critical
• May be used as a single form or in blends of two or more types
• Available in Na or K forms
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 14
Basic Curing Ingredients
Phosphates
Phosphate Groups
# P atoms Ion Usual name
1 PO43- Orthophosphate
2 P2O74- Pyrophosphates
3 P3O55- Tripolyphosphates
≥4 PnO(3n+1)(n+2)- Polyphosphates
Polyphosphoric Acid
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 15
Basic Ingredients
Phosphates
• Functions
– pH modification
• Alkaline phosphates - raise meat pH (~0.2-0.3 units), shifting it away from pI, thus increasing WHC
• Acid phosphates - used as acidulants to accelerate reaction of NO2 and myoglobin to form nitrosomyoglobin
• Affects water binding, texture, color
– Meat protein solubilization
• Dissociate actomyosin complex, freeing myosin for emulsification and making more room for water
– Metal chelation
• Antioxidant activity
– Antimicrobial
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 16
Basic Ingredients
Phosphates
• Effects
– Yield → improved due to increased WHC
– Texture → depends on type used
– Color → acid phosphates can improve color
– Oxidative stability → improved
– Microbial stability → slightly improved
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 17
Basic Ingredients
Phosphates
• Key considerations
– When selecting a phosphate
• Type of meat product and desired phosphate effect(s)
• Phosphate pH and solubility
– During processing
• In a brine, phosphate should be added to water first and dissolved fully before adding other ingredients. High shear brine mixing is advantageous.
• Water hardness is detrimental to solubility
– New generation phosphates and phosphate blends offer unique functionalities that address traditional shortcomings (e.g., solubility)
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 19
Basic Ingredients
Selected Food-Grade Phosphates
Phosphate Acronym FormulaSolubility(g/100 mL)
pH(1% solution)
Monosodium phosphate MSP NaH2PO4 80 4.4–4.8
Disodium phosphate DSP Na2HPO4 10 8.6–9.4
Trisodium phosphate TSP Na3PO4 12 11.9–12.5
Monopotassium phosphate MKP KH2PO4 33 4.4–4.8
Dipotassium phosphate DKP K2HPO4 167 8.6–9.4
Tripotassium phosphate TKP K3PO4 90 11.9–12.5
Monocalcium phosphate MCP Ca(H2PO4)2 Min. 2.7–3.0
Dicalcium phosphate DCP Ca2HPO4 Insoluble 7.2–8.2
Tricalcium phosphate TCP Ca5(OH)(PO4)3 Insoluble 7.0–8.0
Sodium acid pyrophosphate SAPP Na2H2P2O7 12 4.0–4.4
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate TSPP Na4P2O7 6.5 9.9–10.7
Tetrapotassium pyrophosphate TKPP K4P2O7 184 10.0–10.5
Sodium tripolyphosphate STPP Na5P3O10 15 9.5–10.2
Potassium tripolyphosphate KTPP K5P3O10 180 9.5–10.2
Sodium hexametaphosphate SHMP (NaPO3)n ∞ 6.3–7.3
Sodium aluminum phosphate SALP Na2Al2H15(PO4)8 Min. 3.3–3.5
Monoammonium phosphate MAP NH4H2PO4 38 4.5–4.7
Diammonium phosphate DAP (NH4)2 HPO4 58 7.9–8.1
Source: Lampila, L.E. (2013). Applications and functions of food-grade phosphates. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1301, 37–44.
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 20
Phosphates
Selected Food-Grade Phosphates
Phosphate Acronym FormulaSolubility(g/100 mL)
pH(1% solution)
Monosodium phosphate MSP NaH2PO4 80 4.4–4.8
Disodium phosphate DSP Na2HPO4 10 8.6–9.4
Trisodium phosphate TSP Na3PO4 12 11.9–12.5
Monopotassium phosphate MKP KH2PO4 33 4.4–4.8
Dipotassium phosphate DKP K2HPO4 167 8.6–9.4
Tripotassium phosphate TKP K3PO4 90 11.9–12.5
Monocalcium phosphate MCP Ca(H2PO4)2 Min. 2.7–3.0
Dicalcium phosphate DCP Ca2HPO4 Insoluble 7.2–8.2
Tricalcium phosphate TCP Ca5(OH)(PO4)3 Insoluble 7.0–8.0
Sodium acid pyrophosphate SAPP Na2H2P2O7 12 4.0–4.4
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate TSPP Na4P2O7 6.5 9.9–10.7
Tetrapotassium pyrophosphate TKPP K4P2O7 184 10.0–10.5
Sodium tripolyphosphate STPP Na5P3O10 15 9.5–10.2
Potassium tripolyphosphate KTPP K5P3O10 180 9.5–10.2
Sodium hexametaphosphate SHMP (NaPO3)n ∞ 6.3–7.3
Sodium aluminum phosphate SALP Na2Al2H15(PO4)8 Min. 3.3–3.5
Monoammonium phosphate MAP NH4H2PO4 38 4.5–4.7
Diammonium phosphate DAP (NH4)2 HPO4 58 7.9–8.1
Source: Lampila, L.E. (2013). Applications and functions of food-grade phosphates. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1301, 37–44.
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 21
Hydrocolloids
• Hydrophilic long-chain polymers (polysaccharides or proteins) used to control and modify functional properties, primarily water binding, viscosity, emulsification and stabilization
• Form viscous dispersions or gels in the presence of water
• Diverse family of ingredients with differing functional properties
• Primarily used in meats for water binding and texture modification, including as potential fat replacers
• Key properties to consider when selecting:
– Gel strength
– Thermo-reversibility
– Mixtures of hydrocolloids can result in complex properties
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 22
Commonly-used Hydrocolloids
Origin Hydrocolloid
Vegetable AgarAlginateCarrageenan (κ, ι, λ)Cellulose and its derivatives- carboxymethylcellulose (CMC)- methylcellulose (MC)- hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC)
Guar GumGum ArabicInulinKonjacLocust Bean GumPectinStarches (native; modified)
Animal Gelatin
Microbial Xanthan GumGellan GumCurdlan
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 23
Enzymes
• Proteins that act as biochemical catalysts
• Types
– Tenderizing enzymes
– Crosslinking enzymes
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 24
Enzymes
Tenderizing Enzymes
• Proteases, i.e, they tenderize by breaking down protein via hydrolysis reaction
• Commercially isolated from plants, bacteria and fungi
• Plant proteases more commonly used
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 25
Enzymes
Tenderizing Enzymes of Plant Origin
EnzymeEC
number Class SourceMol. wt.
(kDa)Temperature,°C
Optimum Denaturation pH CommentsPapain 3.4.22.2 Cysteine
ProteasePapaya 23.4 65 80−90 5−7 More active
on myofribillar proteins
Bromelain (stem)
3.4.22.32 Cysteine Protease
Pineapple stem
20−33.2 50 70−75 5−9 More active on collagen type proteins
Bromelain (fruit)
3.4.22.33 Cysteine Protease
Pineapple fruit
20−33.2 50 70−75 5−9 More active on collagen type proteins
Ficin 3.4.22.3 Cysteine Protease
Ficus latex 25−26 65 70 5−7 Reaction is milder and easier to control
Actinidin 3.4.22.14 Cysteine Protease
Kiwi fruit 23−26 58−62 60 5−7 Collagen activity
Source: Payne, C. T. (2009). Enzymes. In R. Tarté (Ed.), Ingredients in meat products: Properties, functionality, and applications (pp. 173–198). New York: Springer Science + Business Media.
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 26
Enzymes
Crosslinking Enzymes
• Commercial focus has been on transglutaminase (TGase) enzyme family
• Various TGases can be found in microorganisms, plants, crustaceans and vertebrates
• Commercially viable forms have been isolated from
– Bacteria: Streptoverticillium mobaraense (Ca2+ -independent)
– Animal blood: Blood clotting Factor XIII (Ca2+-dependent)
• Can be used to modify texture and improve yields
• Protein substrate specificity varies by TGase type and state of protein chain
– Appropriate substrate should be added to improve reaction, maximize TGase effectiveness and reduce usage level
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 27
Enzymes
Crosslinking Enzymes
O O | || | | || | R′–C–NH2 + H2N–R′′ R′–C–NH–R′′ + NH3 | | | | Glutamine Lysine ε-(γ-glutamyl)lysyl
isopeptide bond
Transglutaminase-catalyzed crosslinking reaction
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 28
Enzymes
Crosslinking Enzymes
Food protein substrate specificity of TGases of different origin1
Degree of cross-linking 2,3
Pig erythrocyte TGase Bovine plasma TGase Bacterial TGase
Substrate – DTT + DTT – DTT + DTT – DTT + DTT
α-Lactalbumin – ± – ± + ++
β-Lactoglobulin – – – ± – ++
Bovine serum albumin – + – + – ++
Casein – ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Hemoglobin – – ± ± ± ±
Myosin – – ++ ++ ++ ++
Glycinin – ++ – – ++ ++
From de Jong, Wijngaards, Boumans, Koppelman, & Hessing (2001).1 Experimental conditions: 37°C; pH 7.5.2 Symbols: (–) no cross-linking; (±) slow cross-linking; (+) moderate cross-linking; (++) fast cross-linking.3 DTT: Dithiothreitol; promotes unfolding of the protein chain by reducing disulfide bridges.
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 30
• Sucrose
– Salty flavor moderation
– May encourage bacterial growth and product spoilage
– Non-reducing sugar
• Dextrose
– 0.7 X as sweet as sucrose
– Reducing sugar – reacts with amino groups to promote browning during heating
– Commonly used in fermented sausage products
• Converted to lactic acid during fermentation
• Final pH is a function of amount used
• Usage level: 0.3–1.5%
Flavoring Agents
Sweeteners
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 31
• Corn Syrup/Corn Syrup Solids
– Family of sweeteners derived from hydrolysis of corn starch
– Extent of hydrolysis determines mono-, di- and oligosaccharide content, which leads to variations in sweetness
– Designated by their DE (dextrose equivalent) value
• DE is a measure of total reducing value, expressed as % of reducing value of dextrose
• As degree of hydrolysis increase, polysaccharide chains become shorter and DE and sweetness increase
• DEs of 20 to 60 are most common
• Corn starch hydrolysates <20 DE are referred to as maltodextrin
– Corn syrup solids are 20–22% moisture, which must be accounted for when converting between the two
– Aid in water-binding, improve yields and aid in casing peelability
Flavoring Agents
Sweeteners
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 32
• Fructose
– 1.5 X sweeter than sucrose
• High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS)
– Also called isoglucose, glucose-fructose syrup ofr fructose-glucose syrup
– Produced by enzymatic conversion of corn syrups
Glucose Fructose
– Most common ones:
• HFCS 42 (42% fructose, 53% glucose)
• HFCS 55 (55% fructose, 42% glucose) – similar to honey
– Used primarily as sugar replacement
Flavoring Agents
Sweeteners
glucose isomerase
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• Polyols (sugar alcohols)
– Are carbohydrates, but are neither sugars nor alcohols
– Lower caloric value than sugars (≈2 kcal/g)
– Less sweet than sucrose
– Most common ones:
• Sorbitol
• Xylitol
• Maltitol
• Mannitol
• Erythritol
• Isomalt
– Usage level similar to sugars
– May cause gastrointestinal discomfort in some individuals
Flavoring Agents
Sweeteners
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 34
• Noncaloric Sweeteners
– Tend to have high sweetness intensity
– More common ones
• Acesulfame K
• Aspartame
• Stevia
– Very limited use in meat products
Flavoring Agents
Sweeteners
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 35
Flavoring Agents
Sweeteners
SweetenerRelative
Sweetness SweetenerRelative
Sweetness
Sucralose 60,000 Dextrose 75–80
Acesulfame K 20,000 Galactose 60
Aspartame 18,000 Sorbitol 60
HFCS 90 160 Trehalose 45
Agave Syrup 150 42 DE Corn Syrup 48
Fructose 110–150 42 DE Corn Syrup Solids 30–40
HFCS 55 110 Maltose 30–50
HFCS 42 100–110 Galactose 30
Sucrose 100 25 DE Corn Syrup Solids 28
Xylitol 100 20 DE Corn Syrup Solids 23
Invert Sugar 70–90 Lactose 15
Glycerol 80 10 DE Maltodextrin 11
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 36
• Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
– Intensifies flavor
– Provides umami, or “savory” note
– Some individuals are sensitive to it
• Nucleotides
– 5’ nucleotides are very effective flavor potentiators
– Are effective at levels of parts per billion
– Commercial forms used:
• Disodium 5’ inosinate
• Disodium 5’ guanylate
Flavoring Agents
Flavor Modifiers
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 37
• Yeast Extract
– Produced by enzymatic hydrolysis of yeast cell wall and other proteins, followed by cell wall removal
– Contain high levels of some naturally-occurring flavor enhancers, such as glutamic acid
– Autolyzed yeast
• Produced by digestion of proteins by yeast’s own enzymes
• Cell walls are not removed
• Hydrolyzed Proteins
– Various sources: whey, soy, corn, collagen
– Hydrolysis can be achieved enzymatically or chemically (addition of acid or alkali)
– As hydrolysis progresses, smaller molecular weight peptides are formed and flavor contribution increases
Flavoring Agents
Flavor Modifiers
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 38
• Generated by burning wood
• Major smoke components are formed by burning major wood components
• Ratio of smoke components depends on
– Burning temperature (typical range 315–345°C)
– Wood type, consistency and moisture content
– Amount of oxygen present during burning
Flavoring Agents
Smoke
Wood componentSmoke components generated
Cellulose Organic AcidsAldehydesHemicellulose
Lignin PhenolsTar
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 39
• Contribution of smoke components to desirable properties of smoke:
– Phenols
• Flavor and aroma; antioxidant; antimicrobial
– Carbonyls (aldehydes)
• Color development; some flavor
– Organic acids (formic, acetic, propionic)
• Antimicrobial; surface “skin” of products
• Polycyclic hydrocarbons are also produced, which have been shown to be carcinogenic (favored at temperatures >400°C)
• In the U.S., not considered a “flavoring agent” for labeling purposes
Flavoring Agents
Smoke
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 40
• Also referred to as condensed smoke
• Available in oil- or water-based forms
• Obtained by condensing gaseous smoke
• Manufacturing process allows for the separation of different smoke fractions
• Commercial liquid smokes retain key smoke fractions (phenols, carbonyls, organic acids) while excluding polycyclic hydrocarbons
Flavoring Agents
Liquid Smoke
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 41
• Composition can be manipulated to achieve unique effects
– e.g., high carbonyl liquid smoke for color development without much flavor impact
• Major Advantages
– Product uniformity and consistency
– Can be added to product internally to accentuate smoke flavor
– Cleaner; easier to clean and maintain equipment
– Reduced environmental emissions
– Removal of carcinogens
– Lower cost
• Disadvantages
– In the U.S. cannot be labeled as “natural smoke”; must be labeled “smoke flavor added” when used internally
Flavoring Agents
Liquid Smoke
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 42
• Application to Products– Drenching
• Pass product under liquid smoke drench
Flavoring Agents
Liquid Smoke
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 43
Liquid smoke drench
Flavoring Agents
Liquid Smoke
Source: Red Arrow Products Company LLC, Manitowoc, WI, USA
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 44
• Application to Products– Drenching
• Pass product under liquid smoke drench
– Atomization
• Liquid smoke applied using high-pressure nozzles
Flavoring Agents
Liquid Smoke
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 45
Liquid smoke atomization cloud
Flavoring Agents
Liquid Smoke
Source: Red Arrow Products Company LLC, Manitowoc, WI, USA
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 46
• Application to Products– Drenching
• Pass product under liquid smoke drench
– Atomization
• Liquid smoke applied using high-pressure nozzles
– Direct addition
• Incorporate into the formula as an ingredient
• In the U.S., when used in this manner must label “smoke flavor added”
Flavoring Agents
Liquid Smoke
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 47
• Application to Products– Drenching
• Pass product under liquid smoke drench
– Atomization
• Liquid smoke applied using high-pressure nozzles
– Direct addition
• Incorporate into the formula as an ingredient
• In the U.S., when used in this manner must label “smoke flavor added”
– Application onto casings and nettings
• Casings and nets are pre-coated with liquid smoke (or caramel color), which is transferred to the product surface during cooking
Flavoring Agents
Liquid Smoke
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 48
Examples of products made with color and flavor transfer nettings
Flavoring Agents
Liquid Smoke
Source: Kalle GmbH. http://www.kalle.de/en/casings/products/net-casings.html
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 49
Fermentation and Acidification Ingredients
• Starter Cultures
• Acidulants
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 50
• Acidifying cultures
– Decrease pH by producing lactic acid
– Mainly homofermentative strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), such as Lactobacillus sakei, L. curvatus , L. plantarum, L. pentosus, Pediococcus acidiliactici, P. pentosaceus
• Color and flavor forming cultures
– Form flavor via catalase, lipolytic and proteolytic activity
– Gram-positive, catalase-positive cocci (GCC), such as Staphylococcus carnosus, S. xylosus, Kocuria varians
• Surface coverage cultures
– Typically molds, such as Penicillium, Aspergillus, Scopulariopsis
Fermentation and Acidification Ingredients
Starter Cultures
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 51
• Optimum growth temperatures for bacterial cultures: 30–37°C
• Bioprotective cultures have been developed, which produce bacteriocins to protect against pathogens
• Commercially available frozen or freeze-dried
• Process:
– In the U.S., hold product at 32–38°C and high humidity for fermentation to take place (Europeans hold at 22–27°C, which favors better flavor development)
– pH decline must be fast enough to prevent growth of Staphylococcus aureus
– Once ultimate pH is reached (<5.3), product is moved to green rooms for drying and ripening, or cooked to destroy culture
Fermentation and Acidification Ingredients
Starter Cultures
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 52
• To lower pH rapidly without utilizing microbial starter culture
• Due to rapid pH drop, may
– Reduce spoilage and increase shelf life
– Improve color stability, firmness and sliceability
• However, pH drop should not be too rapid
– Acidulants can be encapsulated to prevent this
• Commonly used acidulants
– Glucono-delta-Lactone (GdL)
• Preferred due to slow acidification properties
– Lactic acid, citric acid
• Should be encapsulated to be released upon heating of product
• Main disadvantage of direct acidification
– Products lack complex flavor of their fermented counterparts
Fermentation and Acidification Ingredients
Acidulants
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 53
• Added to prevent oxidative deterioration
• Meat contains endogenous antioxidants
– Tocopherols, carnosine, lipoic acid, enzyme systems
– These however, are not sufficiently effective in commercial meat products, therefore exogenours antioxidants must be used
• Antioxidant ingredients are of two kinds:
– Synthetic
– Natural
Antioxidants
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 54
• Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)
• Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)
• Tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ)
• Propyl gallate (PG)
• Their antioxidant effectiveness is well established
• Usage level is typically restricted by regulations
Antioxidants
Synthetic Antioxidants
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 55
• Recent increase in popularity driven by concerns over synthetic antioxidants and efforts to “clean” and simplify product labels
• Numerous natural substances (e.g., herbs and spices) possess antioxidant activity
• Natural antioxidants that have found commercial success:
• Rosemary and rosemary extracts have found commercial success
– Rely on antioxidant activity of carnosic acid and rosmarinic acid
• Rosmarinic acid is also found in oregano, which has also been use commercially with some success
• Much activity in this area, with new developments coming out frequently
Antioxidants
Natural Antioxidants
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 56
• Substances that inactivate or inhibit the growth of microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, molds, viruses)
• Used for two primary reasons:
– Food Safety
• Prevent the outgrowth of disease-causing microorganisms
– Shelf-life Guarantee
• Ensure microorganisms that cause food to spoil do not overcome the product before a desired period of time
Antimicrobials
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 57
• Antimicrobial’s properties– pKa, concentration/use level, solubility
• Environmental conditions– pH, aw, temperature, food composition
• Application method
– Rinse, spray, dip, internal application
• Synergism with other antimicrobials
– “Hurdle” effect
• Cost-in-use
• Safety– Environmental and employee
Antimicrobials
General Considerations for Use
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 58
• Effect on food product organoleptic attributes– Flavor, texture, color
• Labeling requirements
• Consumer/customer acceptance
Antimicrobials
General Considerations for Use, cont.
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 60
• Quite possibly the oldest known preservative
• Antimicrobial effect primarily involves cellular dehydration via osmosis
• Synergistic with other antimicrobial ingredients, sucha as benzoate, sorbate, nitrite, phosphates, spices, liquid smoke
• As salt is decreased or removed (as when reducing sodium), its antimicrobial properties must be carefully considered and compensated for.
• Potassium chloride has similar antimicrobial properties
Antimicrobials
Salt (sodium chloride)
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 61
• Primary use in meats is for water-holding, texture modification and yield improvement
• Polyvalent anions → bind cations
• Deprive microorganisms of divalent cations and free water
• More effective against G+ bacteria and molds
• Not as effective against G- bacteria
• Effectiveness affected by water hardness
• Trisodium phosphate (TSP) (pH 10–12) is approved in U.S. for decontamination of poultry carcasses and parts
Antimicrobials
Phosphates
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 62
• Available in sodium or potassium nitrite
• Effective against Clostridium botulinum, and other bacteria, including Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella
• Antimicrobial activity enhanced by acidic pH, presence of salt, low temperature and anaerobiosis
• Acts in synergy with other antimicrobials, such as lactate and diacetate
• It has been estimated that at least 70 ppm is needed for adequate antilisterial activity (Glass et al., 2008)
Antimicrobials
Nitrite
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 63
• Short-chain organic acids
• Weak acids
• Antimicrobial activity is pH-dependent
• Antimicrobial activity increases as environmental pH approaches pKa
– When pH = pKa, half of the acid molecules are dissociated
– At pH<pKa, more of the acid is undissociated (and thus more effective)
• In undissociated state, organic acids enter cell, dissociate and decrease cytoplasmic pH. In effort to maintain homeostasis, cellular ATP is depleted
• Organic acids are lipophilic and therefore difficult to solubilize in water phase; therefore they are more commonly added in their salt forms
Antimicrobials
Organic Acids and Salts
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 64
Antimicrobials
Organic Acids and Salts
Organic acid MW pKa
Acetic 60.50 4.75
Propionic 74.08 4.88
Lactic 90.08 3.08
Phosphoric 98.00 2.21
Sorbic 112.13 4.80
Fumaric 116.70 3.03
Benzoic 122.12 4.19
Malic 134.09 3.40
Caprylic (octanoic) 144.21 4.89
Citric 192.12 3.14
Organic acids commonly used in meat products
Source: Simpson, C. A., & Sofos, J. N. (2009). Antimicrobial ingredients. In R. Tarté (Ed.), Ingredients in meat products: Properties, functionality, and applications (pp. 301–377). New York: Springer Science + Business Media.
R. Tarté – 29 Apr 2015 65
• Combinations of organic acids (or with other antimicrobials) can sometimes be more effective than a single one
• Commercial applications:
– Decontamination of fresh meat or carcasses
– Processed meats
• Lactate (usage ≈ 2–3%), sometimes in combination with diacetate, has been used effectively in processed meats for many years
• Recently benzoate and propionate have gained popularity due to their lower cost-in-use (usage ≈ 0.2–0.3%)
Antimicrobials
Organic Acids and Salts