Notes
Introduction
1 . Niyi Afolabi, “The Myth of the Participatory Paradigm,” Studies in Latin
American Popular Culture 20 (2001): 231–245.
1 Carnival in Africa and Its Diaspora
1 . See for example, Judith Bettelheim, “Negotiations of Power in Carnaval
Culture in Santiago de Cuba,” African Arts 24, no. 4 (1991): 66–75,
91–92.
2 . For the first state effort to give visibility to female Carnival voices
and groups in Bahia, see Governo do Estado da Bahia, Carnaval no
Feminino (Salvador: SEPROM, 2010). The prominent voices include
those of Viviam Caroline (Did á ), Margareth Menezes, Dete Lima (Il ê
Aiy ê ), Gra ç a Ona�ilê (Il ê Aiy ê ), and Negra Jh ô , among others. For a
more focused discussion of the “divas” of Bahian Carnival, namely
Daniela Mercury, Margareth Menezes, and Ivete Sangalo, see Marilda
Santanna, As Donas do Canto: O Sucesso das Estrelas-Int é rpretes no
Carnaval de Salvador (Salvador: EDUFBA, 2009). The few individual
studies on female Carnival groups in Bahia include Carole Boyce Davies,
“Re-Presenting Black Female Identity in Brazil: ‘Filhas d’Oxum’ in Bahia
Carnival,” Ijele: Journal of the African World 2, no. 1 (2001) (formerly
online at http://www.ijele.com/ijele/vol2.1/boyceDavies.html ), and
Barbara Browning, “The Daughters of Gandhi: Africanness, Indianness,
and Brazilianness in the Bahian Carnival,” Women and Performance 7–8
(1995): 151–169.
3 . Trios el é tricos are trucks or f loats that are equipped with high-powered
sound systems and a music group on the roof, playing for the crowd. It
was created for Bahian Carnival specifically and credited to Dod ô and
Osmar (Adolfo Nascimento and Osmar Macêdo), who in 1949 intro-
duced the phenomenon during Carnival in Bahia with their now-famous
old Ford Model T, which they modified to supply car battery power to
their self-made electric instruments. The trio el é trico is now a famous
phenomenon in communities across Brazil as well as in other countries.
4 . Filhos de Gandhi, the first afox é in Bahia (differs from a bloco afro in the
sense that the afox é focuses on African religious rites and ceremonies
232 NOTES
such as Candombl é ), and headquartered in Pelourinho, was founded in
1949 by dock workers who were inspired by the pacifist approach of
Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) to political liberation. This organization
celebrated its sixtieth anniversary in 2009 and was officially recognized
by the government and other Carnival groups. In addition to long-stand-
ing community involvement and development efforts, especially regard-
ing the youth, Filhos de Gandhi has been featured in such films as Dias
Gomes’s O Pagador de Promessas (1950) and Jorge Amado’s Dona Flor e
Seus Dois Maridos (1976).
5 . Considered one of the major players of the Afro-Bahian Carnival,
Olodum is a cultural group based in the Afro-Brazilian community of
Salvador. It was founded in 1979 by percussionist Neguinho do Samba,
the creator of the samba-reggae rhythm in 1986, and, like Il ê Aiy ê , it
offers empowering cultural activities to young people through music and
theatrical productions. Its goals include combating racial discrimination,
encouraging self-esteem and pride among Afro-Brazilians, and fighting
for civil rights for all marginalized populations.
6 . Black consciousness groups such as Il ê Aiy ê set out to raise the aware-
ness about the realities of Brazilian blacks, especially Bahians struggling
with racial discrimination and police brutality. The Afro-Brazilian group
Il ê Aiy ê was founded in 1974 by Ant ô nio Carlos “Vov ô ” and Apol ô nio
de Jesus in the neighborhood of Curuzu-Liberdade, the largest black
population area of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. Often suffering persecution
by the police and the media during its first years, and still controversial
for allowing only blacks only to parade during Carnival, Il ê Aiy ê is one
of the prominent attractions of Bahian Carnival.
7 . Muzenza was founded in 1981 in homage to Bob Marley (1945–1981).
The Afro-Jamaican reggae culture was becoming quite popular then in
Bahia. They released their first CD, Muzenza do Reggae , in 1988.
8 . Originally members of the Melo do Banzu Carnival group in Engenho
Velho de Federa çã o district, the founders moved to Itapu ã where they
created another Carnival group in 1979, named Mal ê de Bal é , which set
out to appreciate black cultural values and develop the community. It
is the only organization that references the nineteenth-century Muslim
revolt in Bahia in its name: Mal ê , which means “Muslim.”
9 . See Bahiatursa, The Greatest Expression of African Culture in Brazil
(n.d.). The quote is attributed to Billy Arquimimo, the director of the
African Heritage Tourism Department. Other cultural and religious
references in the pamphlet include the Baiana, Gastronomy, Capoeira,
Religious Festivals, and The Good Death Festival. Headquartered in
Pelourinho, Cortejo Afro (one of the Carnival groups referenced by
Arquimimo), was founded in 1998 within the Il ê Axé Oy á temple in the
Piraj á community of Salvador, seeking a revival of black cultural values.
10 . See Jeffrey S. Duneman, “Sublime Folly,” Brazzil (February 2001),
http://brazzil.com/blafeb01.htm (accessed August 5, 2015).
NOTES 233
11 . See James H. Kennedy, “Strategies for Including Afro-Latin American
Culture in the Intermediate Spanish Class,” Hispania 70, no. 3 (1987):
679–683. Kennedy argues that students’ interest in studying foreign lan-
guages such as Spanish and Portuguese could be sustained at the inter-
mediate level by including African elements in the folklore and culture of
Latin America. Specifically recommending Brazil and Haiti, the author
believes that black contribution in Latin America could be emphasized
through Carnival. A few recommended texts include Paulo de Carvalho
Neto, El Carnaval de Montevideo (Seville: Seminario de Antropologia
Americana, 1967); Paulo de Carvalho Neto, Estudios Afros: Brasil,
Paraguay, Uruguay, Ecuador (Caracas: Universidad Central de Venezuela,
1971); Antonio D. Pl á cido, Carnaval, Evocaci ó n de Montevideo en la
Historia y la Tradici ó n (Montevideo: Editorial Letras, 1966); Ann M.
Pescatello, The African in Latin America (New York: Knopf, 1975); and
Daniel Piquet, La Cultura Afrovenezolana (Caracas: Monte Avila, 1982).
See also George Reid Andrews, The Afro-Argentines of Buenos Aires,
1800–1900 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980) and George
Reid Andrews, Afro-Latin America (New York: Oxford University Press,
2004).
12 . Anani Dzidzienyo, “Conclusion,” in No Longer Invisible: Afro-Latin
Americans Today , ed. Minority Rights Group (London: Minority Rights
Group, 1995), 345.
13 . The Brazilian Carnivals collectively are the biggest and the most diverse
in the entire world. The most famous celebrations are those in Rio de
Janeiro, Bahia, and Pernambuco. Varying in their regional character-
istics, Rio Carnival is defined by extravagant spectacles staged by the
escolas de samba ; Afro-Bahian Carnival is defined by the blocos afros and
Afox é s , while Pernambucan Carnival is characterized by frevo (an elec-
trifying and fast-paced dance with African and acrobatic influences) and
maracat ú (Afro-Brazilian secular performance infused with Candombl é
rituals referencing the Reis do Congo or those individuals who occu-
pied leadership positions within the slave community). Modern Brazilian
Carnival started in 1641 when Rio de Janeiro’s bourgeoisie entertained
the idea of holding masquerade parties and balls such as those in Paris,
and later incorporated hybrid elements derived from African and Native
American influences.
14 . Though Argentinean Carnival varies from region to region, the most
remarkable celebrations are those of Corrientes, Entre Rios, Salta, San
Luis, and Buenos Aires. The schools of samba are also called comparsas .
15 . Notable of Colombian Carnival is the Carnaval de Negros e Brancos
(Carnival of Blacks and Whites) which is celebrated every January in the
city of Pasto and was classified as part of the national cultural patrimony
by the state in 2002.
16 . The most famous Venezuelan Carnival is known as the Puerto Cabello
Carnival, spearheaded by the Grupo Folcl ó rico San Millan which is
234 NOTES
engaged in the revitalization of popular culture and ethnic roots in
Puerto Cabello.
17 . The most famous Ecuadorian Carnival festivities are in Guaranda and
Ambato.
18 . Notting Hill London Carnival, first held in 1966, is the biggest street
festival in Europe and has remained so for 50 years. For a detailed study,
see Abner Cohen, Masquerade Politics: Explorations in the Structure of
Urban Cultural Movements (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1993).
19 . Egungun refers to the ancestral masquerades among the Yoruba of
Nigeria. For a detailed study of the spiritual and political function of
this manifestation of the dead among the living, see S. O. Babayemi,
Egungun Among the Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan: Oyo State Council of Arts and
Culture/Board Publications, 1980). See also Abdul-Rasheed Na’Allah,
“The Origin of Egungun : A Critical Literary Appraisal,” African Study
Monographs 17, no. 2 (1996): 59–68.
20 . Monica Vison à et al., A History of Art in Africa (Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001), 255. For further studies on Yoruba masquer-
ades, see Henry Drewal and Margaret Drewal, Gelede: Art and Female
Power among the Yoruba (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990);
Babatunde Lawal, The Gelede Spectacle: Art, Gender, and Social Harmony
in an African Culture (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996);
Olawole Famule, The Ijumu-Yoruba Egungun Masquerades: Art and
Spirituality in an African Culture (London: Verlag, 2009); and Henry
Drewal, “Flaming Crowns, Cooling Waters: Masquerades of the Ijebu
Yoruba,” African Arts 20, no. 1 (1986): 32–41, where he invokes the
playful nature of the Eyo or Adamuorisa masquerade as a manifestation
of call-and-response tradition in Yoruba culture.
21 . In 2011, for example, these are just a few of the places where Carnivals
were celebrated: Bahamas (December 2010/January 2011); Brazil
(February); Nice (February/March); Venice (March); Trinidad and
Tobago (February); Colombia (March); Haiti (March); Ecuador (March);
Dominican Republic (March); New Orleans (March); Jamaica (April/
May); Bermuda (May); Cayman Islands (May); San Francisco (May);
Ottawa (June); Toronto (July); Barbados (July); St. Lucia (July); Notting
Hill (August); New York (September); Miami (October).
22 . See Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 222–223.
23 . Hollis Liverpool, Rituals of Power and Rebellion: The Carnival Tradition
in Trinidad and Tobago, 1763–1962 (Chicago: Research Associates,
1993), ix. Liverpool argues that through a process of continuity and
change of West African traditions, Afro-Trinidadians survived through
Carnival arts, resisting the efforts of British colonial government and the
elite to control and oppress them.
24 . For a more detailed account of the history of Carnival in Trinidad and
its African influence, see John Nunley, “Playing Mas: Carnival in Port
NOTES 235
of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago,” in Carnaval! , ed. Barbara Mauldin
(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004), 242–247.
25 . Garth L. Green and Philip W. Scher, Trinidad Carnival: The Cultural
Politics of a Transnational Festival (Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 2007), 9. For a more Africa-centered reading of Trinidad Carnival,
see Liverpool, Rituals of Power and Rebellion .
26 . Elizabeth McAlister, Rara! Vodou, Power, and Performance in Haiti and
Its Diasporas (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 31.
27 . Gage Averill, “ Anraje to Angaje : Carnival Politics and Music in Haiti,”
Ethnomusicology 38, no. 2 (1994): 220. See also Donald Cosentino, “‘My
Heart Don’t Stop’: Haiti, the Carnival State,” in Mauldin, Carnaval! ,
269–97.
28 . For a detailed account of “Black Carnival” and African influence on
Mardi Gras history in New Orleans, see Jason Berry, “Mardi Gras in New
Orleans, USA,” in Carnaval! , ed. Barbara Mauldin (Seattle: University
of Washington Press, 2004), 299–325.
29 . In addition to putting 30 floats in the Mardi Gras parade each year, the
Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club give away to revelers up to 100,000
colored and Zulu-inscribed coconuts. Given that palm trees do not natu-
rally grow in Louisiana, this highly sought after and prized memorabilia
invokes Africa during Mardi Gras in the same way as the group’s name
does (Zulu referring to an ethnic group in South Africa).
30 . For a more sociological reading of the London Carnival as an urban
cultural movement, see Cohen, Masquerade Politics .
31 . Ian Strachan, “Junkanoo and Power in The Bahamas: An Historical
Perspective,” in Marvels of the African World: African Cultural
Patrimony, New World Connections, and Identities , ed. Niyi Afolabi
(Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2003), 478.
32 . See Judith Bettelheim and John Nunley, Caribbean Festival Arts
(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988), 71. For an additional
look at the increasing role of women in Junkanoo, see Rosita M. Sands,
“Conversation with Maureen ‘Bahama Mama’ DuValier and Ronald
Simms,” The Black Perspective in Music 17, no. 1/2 (1989): 93–108.
33 . See Philip W. Scher, “Brooklyn Carnival: Mandate for a Dual-Sited
Ethography,” Carnival and the Formation of a Caribbean Transnation
(Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003), 64–87.
34 . For more insights on the re-Africanization process in Afro-Bahian Carnival,
see Ant ô nio Ris é rio, Carnaval Ijex á (Salvador: Corrupio, 1981). See also,
Christopher Dunn, “Afro-Bahian Carnival: A Stage for Protest,” Afro-
Hispanic Review 11, no. 1–3 (1992): 11–20; and Chris McGowan and
Ricardo Pessanha, “Bahia of All the Saints,” chapter 6 of The Brazilian
Sound (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1998), 119–31.
35 . Pam Morris, ed., The Bakhtin Reader: Selected Writings of Bakhtin,
Medvedev, Voloshinov (New York: St. Martins/Edward Arnold, 1994), 74.
36 . Henry Louis Gates, Jr., The Signifying Monkey (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1988), 6.
236 NOTES
37 . Daniel J. Crowley, “The Sacred and the Profane in African and African-
Derived Carnivals,” Western Folklore 58. no. 3/4 (1999): 227.
38 . Cohen, Masquerade Politics , 4.
39 . Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1984), 81–82.
40 . Roberto DaMatta, Carnivals, Rogues, and Heroes (London and Notre
Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991), 86–87.
41 . Robert Stam, Subversive Pleasures (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1989), 2.
42 . Roberto DaMatta, “A Concise Reflection on the Brazilian Carnival,” in
Aesthetics in Performance , ed. Angela Hobart and Bruce Kapferer (New
York: Berghahn Books, 2005), 183.
43 . Piers Armstrong, “The Cultural Economy of the Bahian Carnaval ,”
Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 18 (1999): 139–158. For the
strictly cultural analysis of Bahian Carnaval as a global phenomenon, see
also Piers Armstrong’s “The Aesthetic Escape Hatch: Carnaval , Blocos
Afro and the Mutations of Baianidade under the Signs of Globalisation
and re-Africanization,” Journal of Iberian and Latin American Research
5, no. 2 (1999): 65–98.
44 . Carl Ratner, “Agency and Culture,” Journal of the Theory of Social
Behavior 30 (2000): 421.
45 . Pierre Bourdieu, Pascaliam Meditations (Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press, 2000), 136–137. See also, Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic
Power (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 10–12.
46 . This, M ã e Hilda’s role of blessing the parade with a spiritual release
of doves, is now taken over by the new iyalorixá of the Il ê Ax é Jitolu,
Hildelice Benta dos Santos, daughter of M ã e Hilda.
47 . See “Depois que o Il ê Passar,” on Il ê Aiy ê ’s DVD Canto Negro (S ã o
Paulo: Warner Music Group, 2003).
48 . Michel Agier, “Etnopol í tica,” Estudos Afro-Asi á ticos 22 (1992): 99.
49 . Michel Agier, “As M ã es Pretas do Il ê Aiy ê : Nota Sobre o Espa ç o Mediano
da Cultura,” Afro- Á sia 18 (1996): 202.
50 . Florentina da Silva Souza, “Discursos Identit á rios Afro-Brasileiros: O Il ê
Aiy ê ,” in Po é ticas Afro-Brasileiras , ed. Maria do Carmo Lanna Figueiredo
and Maria Nazareth Soares Fonseca (Belo Horizonte: Mazza, 2002), 87.
51 . Walter Altino de Sousa Jr., O Il ê Aiy ê e a Rela çã o com o Estado (Salvador:
Fast Design, 2007), 139.
52 . James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), 185.
2 Emergence of an Afro-Carnival Agency
1 . The building of the Il ê Aiy ê headquarters may not have been planned to
mimic the float-like 1950 Dod ô and Osmar invention, but its building
plan does suggest a ship-like, multi-level mobile musical truck that reso-
nates the trio el é trico model.
NOTES 237
2 . The four colors symbolize the blood that was shed during slavery (red),
the power they are seeking (yellow), their skin color (black), and the
quest for peace (white).
3 . In Yoruba culture and history, cowrie shells served as legal tender and they
denote wealth and bounty within the culture regardless of how used—
whether as ornaments on sacred buildings or visual accents on secular
structures. In the sacred domain, cowrie shells are still used in divina-
tion, hence the symbolism of 16 cowrie shells. The emblem of Il ê Aiy ê
includes this symbol which is usually used in its Carnival costumes, on
drums, during the Black Pageantry events, and on other memorabilia.
4 . The Ife Bronze Head is one of 18 copper alloy sculptures that were
unearthed in 1938 at Ife in Nigeria, which is considered the religious and
former royal center of the Yoruba people. The Bronze Head is believed to
represent a king. A year after it was unearthed, it was taken to the British
Museum by colonial authorities.
5 . Track 14 (“Que Bloco É Esse?”) on the 1999 CD Il ê Aiy ê : 25 Anos . My
translation.
6 . Most recent interviews with Vov ô took place in the following months:
December 2008, February 2009, June 2009, December 2009, June
2010, and December 2010.
7 . Christopher Dunn, “Afro-Bahian Carnival: A Stage for Protest,” Afro-
Hispanic Review 11, no. 1–3 (1992): 15.
8 . See “Bloco Racista, Nota Destoante,” editorial of A Tarde , February 12,
1975, p. 2.
9 . J ô natas C. da Silva, “Hist ó ria de Lutas Negras: Mem ó rias do Surgimento
do Movimento Negro na Bahia,” Escravid ã o e Inven çã o da Liberdade , ed.
Jo ã o Jos é Reis (S ã o Paulo: Brasiliense, 1998), 279.
10 . Ant ô nio Ris é rio, Carnaval Ijex á (Salvador: Corrupio, 1981), 45.
11 . Ant ô nio Ris é rio, “The Colors of Change,” in Black Brazil: Culture,
Identity, and Social Mobilization , ed. Larry Crook and Randal Johnson
(Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999),
250–52.
12 . Ris é rio, Carnaval Ijex á , 45.
13 . David Covin, The Unified Black Movement in Brazil, 1978–2002
(Jefferson, NC and London: McFarland, 2006), 206. For additional
insights into the role of culture in the MNU, see also David Covin, “The
Role of Culture in Brazil’s Unified Black Movement, Bahia in 1992,”
Journal of Black Studies 27, no. 1 (1996): 39–55.
14 . These include among many others, Michael Hanchard, Orpheus and
Power: The Movimento Negro of Rio de Janeiro and S ã o Paulo, Brazil,
1945–1988 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994); Kim
Butler, Freedoms Given, Freedoms Won: Afro-Brazilians in Post-Abolition
S ã o Paulo and Salvador (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press,
1998); David Covin, Unified Black Movement in Brazil ; and Edward
Telles, Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006). From the Brazilian
238 NOTES
perspective, a most compelling and problematic work is by Ant ô nio
Ris é rio, A Utopia Brasileira e os Movimentos Negros (S ã o Paulo: Editora
34, 2007).
15 . Hanchard, Orpheus and Power , 160.
16 . Ibid., 136.
17 . Butler, Freedoms Given, Freedoms Won , 173.
18 . Covin, Unified Black Movement in Brazil , 57.
19 . Ris é rio, A Utopia Brasileira e os Movimentos Negros , 387.
20 . Armstrong, “The Cultural Economy of the Bahian Carnaval ,” Studies
in Latin American Popular Culture 18 (1999): 140.
21 . Ibid.
22 . Ibid., 149.
23 . For a more detailed study on the subject/construction of Il ê Aiy ê as
a museum, see Joseania Freitas, “Museu do Bloco Afro Il ê Aiy ê : Um
Espa ç o de Mem ó ria e Etnicidade,” Master’s Thesis, Federal University of
Bahia, 1996.
24 . Track 3 (“Beleza Pura”) [side I] on Caetano Veloso’s LP, Cinema
Transcendental (1979).
25 . Daniela Mercury (born Daniela Mercury de Almeida on July 28, 1965),
is a Latin Grammy Award-winning Brazilian singer and songwriter. She
is as proficient with samba-reggae and axé music as she is with Brazilian
popular music as a whole. Since her breakthrough into the axé music
scene in Salvador da Bahia in the 1990s, Mercury has become one of
the best-known Brazilian female singers, selling over 20 million albums
worldwide.
26 . Track 3 (“O Mais Belo dos Belos”) on Il ê Aiy ê : 25 Anos .
27 . Track 5 (“Um Canto de Afox é para o Bloco Il ê Aiy ê ”) on Afro-Brazil:
Various Artists .
28 . This sampling of the aesthetic accomplishments of Il ê Aiy ê is supple-
mented by a more detailed analysis of the group’s Afro-Carnival music in
chapter 8 of this book.
29 . The Festival of Music is the annual occasion when many composers and
singers compete for their compositions to be selected for the subsequent
Carnival parade.
30 . The Night of Black Beauty is the annual occasion when the next Carnival
Queen is selected in a black beauty pageant.
31 . Track 2 (“Deusa do É bano”) on Il ê Aiy ê : Canto Negro .
32 . Track 11 (“Deusa do É bano II”) on Il ê Aiy ê : 25 Anos .
33 . Walter Altino de Sousa Jr., O Il ê Aiy ê e a Rela çã o com o Estado: Interfaces e
Ambig ü idades entre Poder e Cultura na Bahia . Salvador: Fast Design, 2007.
34 . Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, eds., Selections from the
Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (London: Lawrence and Wishart,
1982); Pierre Bourdieu, “The School as a Conservative Force: Scholastic
and Cultural Inequalities,” in Contemporary Research in the Sociology
of Education , ed. James Eggleston (London: Methuen, 1974), 32–46;
Ris é rio, Carnaval Ijex á .
NOTES 239
35 . Among these stars, the female ones have been particularly successful—
especially Daniela Mercury, Ivete Sangalo, and Margareth Menezes.
For a more detailed analysis of these megastars, see Marilda Santanna,
As Donas do Canto: O Sucesso das Estrelas-Int é rpretes no Carnaval de
Salvador . Salvador: EDUFBA, 2009.
36 . According to Fraz ã o, while the regular members of Il ê Aiy ê pay $R600
(reais) to parade in Carnaval (with complete and elaborate costumes),
white members of the alternative group, “I also belong to Il ê ,” would pay
$R200.
37 . See Heliana Fraz ã o, “Bloco Il ê Aiy ê Passa a Aceitar Brancos no Carnaval
e Gera Pol ê mica” [Il ê Aiy ê Carnival Association Now Accepts Whites in
its Carnival and Generates Controversies], UOL (November 28, 2009),
http://noticias.uol.com.br/cotidiano/2009/11/28/ult5772u6412.
jhtm (accessed August 5, 2015).
3 Mãe Hilda: Matriarchy, Candomblé, and Ilê Aiyê
1 . Rosana Santana, “Interview with Ant ô nio Carlos dos Santos, Vov ô ,
President of Il ê Aiy ê ,” in Carnaval da Bahia: Um Registro Est é tico , ed.
Nelson Cerqueira (Salvador: Omar G., 2002), 114.
2 . By “hybrid” and the notion of the sacred coexisting with the profane,
I notice that on Fridays, all the directors and teachers dress in white in
honor of Oxal á (Supreme Deity or Deity of Peace), which happens to
be Vov ô ’s preferred deity. This may well be done in solidarity, but the
official practice of a spiritual belief within the organization suggests that
these activities are not separable. Some of Il ê Aiy ê ’s dance moves are also
distinctly from Candombl é , even if modified and stylized to approximate
African-derived performances.
3 . Alberto Lima, “Homenagem a M ã e Hilda Jitolu: Perola Negra Maior,”
Foto-etnografia ALBERTO LIMA (September 23, 2009), http://
fotografoalbertolima.blogspot.com/2009/09/homenagem-mae-hilda-
jitolu-por-alberto.html (accessed August 5, 2015). Except where other-
wise stated, all translations in this book are mine.
4 . Val é ria Lima, “M ã e Hilda Jitolu,” formerly online at http://www.car-
navalouronegro.ba.gov.br/mestres_populares.php (originally accessed
August 5, 2010).
5 . John Mbiti, Introduction to African Religion (London: Heinemann,
1991 [1975]), 20.
6 . Hilda Dias dos Santos, M ã e Hilda: A Hist ó ria da Minha Vida (Salvador:
EGBA, 1997), 14.
7 . Ibid.
8 . See for example, Ant ô nio Ris é rio, Carnaval Ijex á : Notas Sobre Afox é s e
Blocos do Novo Carnaval Afro-Baiano . Salvador: Corrupio, 1981; Larry
Crook, “Reinventing Africa and Hybridity in Northeastern Music:
Blocos Afro and Mangue Beat,” in: Brazilian Music (Santa Barbara,
240 NOTES
CA: ABC-CLIO, 2005); Christopher Dunn, “Afro-Bahian Carnival: A
Stage for Protest ,” Afro-Hispanic Review 11, no. 1–3 (1992): 11–20; Piers
Armstrong, “The Cultural Economy of the Bahian Carnaval ,” Studies
in Latin American Popular Culture 18 (1999): 139–158; among others.
9 . Santos, M ã e Hilda , 15.
10 . Ibid., 17.
11 . See Roberto DaMatta, Carnavais, Malandros e Her ó is (Rio de Janeiro:
Zahar, 1981).
12 . See J ú lio Braga, Ancestralidade Afro-Brasileira (Salvador: EDUFBA,
1992).
13 . Santos, M ã e Hilda, 14.
14 . See Il ê Aiy ê , M ã e Hilda Jitolu: Guardi ã da F é e da Tradi çã o Africana
(Salvador, Il ê Aiy ê , 2004), 38.
15 . Ibid., 37.
16 . Ibid., 22.
17 . Ibid., 31.
18 . Ibid., 24.
19 . Ibid., 35.
20 . Ibid., 17.
21 . Obaluaiy ê (also known as Sopona), is the deity of disease, pestilence,
and smallpox. Yorubas believe that if anyone is aff licted by smallpox and
worships Obaluaiy ê , the person will be cleansed and cured. Obaluaiy ê
stresses good character just as the other Orisas do but has a very spe-
cific way of punishing the lack of good character and judgment, such
as through unhealthy, inappropriate, and unwise decisions in one’s life
patterns.
22 . Santos, M ã e Hilda , 13.
23 . Ibid., 10.
24 . Formerly published on Il ê Aiy ê ’s website, at http://www.ileaiye.org.br/
maehilda.htm (originally accessed, August 10, 2010).
25 . Kim D. Butler, “ Ginga Baiana —The Politics of Race, Class, Culture,
and Power in Salvador, Bahia,” in Afro-Brazilian Culture and Politics:
Bahia, 1790s to 1990s , ed. Hendrik Kraay (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1998),
159–160.
26 . Henry Drewal, “Art History, Agency, and Identity: Yoruba Transcultural
Currents in the Making of Black Brazil,” in Black Brazil: Culture,
Identity, and Social Mobilization , ed. Larry Crook and Randal Johnson
(Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999), 166.
27 . See Il ê Aiy ê , M ã e Hilda Jitolu: Guardi ã da F é e da Tradi çã o Africana
(Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 2004), 40.
28 . Formerly published on Il ê Aiy ê ’s website, at http://www.ileaiye.org.br/
index2.htm (originally accessed August 10, 2010).
29 . Rita de Cassia Maia da Silva, “O Negro-Espet á culo: O Bloco Afro Il ê
Aiy ê na Resignifica çã o e Recep çã o da Imagem do Negro em Salvador”
(PhD diss., Federal University of Bahia, 2002, 2 vols.), 290.
30 . Ibid., 306.
NOTES 241
31 . Ibid., 312.
32 . Ibid., 304.
33 . Il ê Aiy ê , “Oxumar é Conduz a Deusa do É bano 2009,” O Mondo 25
(2009): 5.
34 . Agier, “As M ã es Pretas do Il ê Aiy ê : Notas Sobre o Espa ç o Mediano da
Cultura,” Afro- Á sia 18 (1996): 196.
35 . Ibid., 197.
36 . See Bule Bule and Onildo Barbosa, M ã e Preta Foi e É Ama, Mestra, e
Protetora [Cordel] (Salvador, Editora dos Autores, 1983), 3.
37 . Ibid., 4.
38 . Ibid., 5.
39 . Ibid., 7.
4 Aesthetics of Ilê Aiyê’s African(ized) Carnival Costumes
1 . See Peter Fry, S é rgio Carrara, and Ana Luiza Martins-Costa, “Negros
e Brancos no Carnaval da Velha Rep ú blica,” Escravid ã o e Inven çã o da
Liberdade , ed. Jo ã o Jos é Reis (S ã o Paulo: Brasiliense, 1988), 232–263.
2 . Ibid., 256.
3 . This Vov ô interview was granted to TVE Bahia in 1994, on the occasion
of Il ê Aiy ê ’s twentieth anniversary. See Il ê Canta a Liberdade [Il ê Sings
Freedom] (Salvador: TVE Bahia, 1995). DVD.
4 . Cited in Colin Legum, Pan Africanism (London: Pall Mall Press, 1962), 19.
5 . V. Y. Mudimbe, “Reprendre: Enunciations and Strategies in Contemporary
African Arts,” in Reading the Contemporary: African Art from Theory
to the Marketplace , ed. Olu Oguibe and Okwui Enwezor (London and
Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1999), 32.
6 . Ibid., 46.
7 . A few studies have addressed and documented the continuity of par-
ticipation of Afro-Carnival groups in the traditional and popular festi-
vals of Salvador. See for example, Manuel Querino, A Bahia de Outrora
(Salvador: Progresso, 1955), Edison Carneiro, Folguedos Tradicionais (Rio
de Janeiro: Conquista, 1974), Pierre Verger, Prociss õ es e Carnaval da Bahia
(Salvador: CEAO, 1980), and Francisco Calmon, Rela çã o das Faust í ssimas
Festas (Rio de Janeiro: Minist é rio de Educa çã o e Cultura, 1982).
8 . My translation from Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos no Brasil (S ã o Paulo:
Madras, 2008), 170.
9 . See Larry Crook and Randal Johnson, eds., Black Brazil: Culture,
Identity, and Social Mobilization (Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American
Center Publications, 1999), and Jeferson Bacelar and Carlos Caroso,
eds., Brasil: Um Pa í s de Negros? (Rio de Janeiro: Pallas/CEAA, 1998).
10 . For a detailed discussion of this proposal, see Femi Ojo-Ade, “O Brasil,
Para í so ou Inferno Para o Negro: Subs í dios Para Uma Nova Negritude,”
in Jeferson Bacelar and Carlos Caroso, Brasil: Um Pa í s de Negros? (Rio de
Janeiro: Pallas/CEAA, 1998), 35–50.
242 NOTES
11 . See Doran H. Ross, Wrapped in Pride: Ghanaian Kente and African
American Identity (Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum, 1998); Duncan
Clarke, The Art of African Textiles (San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press,
2002); Rowland Abiodun, Ulli Beier, and John Pemberton III, Cloth Only
Wears to Shreds: Yoruba Textiles and Photographs from the Beier Collection
(Amherst, MA: Mead Art Museum and Robert Frost Library, 2004). For
a panoramic study of the textile art of Il ê Aiy ê , see also Jussara Rocha
Nascimento, “A Arte do Il ê Aiy ê : Elo na Corrente que une Heran ç a e
Projeto,” in Imagens Negras: Ancestralidade, Diversidade e Educa çã o , ed
Maria de Lourdes (Belo Horizonte: Mazza, 2006), 136–148.
12 . The zigzag motif, often connected to fishtails, is an ancient form that
references blessing and power in many African societies.
13 . “Interview with Vov ô .” June 14, 2008. The full interview with detailed
insights was formerly available at http://www.irohin.org.br/imp/tem-
plate.php?edition=24&id=198 (originally accessed on October 2, 2010).
14 . Ibid.
15 . For a fuller discussion of the neo-negritude concept, its critique, and
complication, see Y. E. Dogbe, Le Divin Amour (Paris: P. J. Oswald,
1976) and Peter S. Thompson, “Negritude and a New Africa: An
Update,” in African Literature: An Anthology of Criticism and Theory , ed.
Tejumola Olaniyan and Ato Quayson (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007),
210–218. In his own questioning of “racial democracy” and examination
of a “new negritude” in Brazil, Femi Ojo-Ade also wonders if despite the
appearance of integration, Brazil is “paradise or hell” for Afro-Brazilians
(Femi Ojo-Ade, “O Brasil, Para í so ou Inferno para o Negro?”).
16 . The berimbau is a one-stringed instrument that resembles a longbow
with a gourd attached to the base.
17 . See Michael R. D á vila, “Oppression and Resistance in Jamaican Reggae
and Afro–Brazilian Music: A Comparative Study of Race in Music and
Culture,” The Dread Library , http://debate.uvm.edu/dreadlibrary/
davila.html (accessed August 5, 2015).
18 . Ibid.
19 . Clarence Bernard Henry, Let’s Make Some Noise: Ax é and the African
Roots of Brazilian Popular Music (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,
2008), 153.
20 . Gilberto Gil’s interview with Banning Eyre of Afropop Worldwide, for-
merly online at http://www.afropop.org/multi/interview/ID/6/ (orig-
inally accessed October 5, 2010).
21 . Since Il ê Aiy ê ’s 1987 Carnival costume (Nigeria) has been analyzed ear-
lier in this chapter, for the sake of efficiency it will not be part of the
selection for the “experimental phase.”
22 . See J ô natas Concei çã o da Silva, “O Querer é o Eterno Poder: Hist ó ria e
Resist ê ncia no Bloco Afro,” Afro- Á sia 16 (1995): 113.
23 . Il ê Aiy ê , 20 Anos de Resist ê ncia Negra/1974–1994: Uma Na çã o Africana
Chamada Bahia (Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 1994).
NOTES 243
24 . Pierre Verger, Not í cias da Bahia—1850 (Salvador: Corrupio, 1981).
25 . See Maria de Lourdes Siqueira, P é rolas Negras do Saber (Salvador:
Cadernos de Educa çã o do Il ê Aiy ê , 1997), 5.
26 . See Concei çã o and Siqueira, Á frica: Ventre F é rtil do Mundo (Salvador:
Cadernos de Educa çã o do Il ê Aiy ê , 1997), 10.
27 . Ibid., 33.
28 . Il ê Aiy ê , Canto Negro: Am é rica Negra, O Sonho Americano (Salvador: Il ê
Aiy ê , 1993), 3.
29 . Opaxorô is a metal staff with a dove figure on top that Oxal á (Orisanla)
holds in his hands as a symbol of peace and power following the creation
of the world.
30 . � à�à r à is a musical instrument that is used by Obaluaiy ê , an Earth-
influenced deity whose real name, �à np � nn á , is usually avoided or for-
bidden to be pronounced, for fear of causing diseases and illnesses.
31 . See Henry J. Drewal, “Costume in African Traditions,” International
Encyclopedia of Dance , Vol. 2 (New York: Oxford University Press,
1998): 209–213.
32 . For a detailed discussion of the contradictions of tourism and social
inequalities in Bahia, see Anadelia Romo, Brazil’s Living Museum: Race,
Reform, and Tradition in Bahia (Chapel Hill, NC: University of Carolina
Press, 2010).
5 Masquerades of Afro-Femininity, Beauty, and Politics
1 . See http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/still-i-rise/
2 . On the CD Canto Negro (Polygram, 1984).
3 . Interview with Vov ô , June 10, 2010.
4 . Canto Negro CD.
5 . Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane (Orlando, FL: Harcourt,
1987 [1957]), 150.
6 . See Da Diretoria do Bloco Carnavalesco Il ê Aiy ê à s Candidatas a “Rainha
Il ê ” (Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 1988), 1 .
7 . For a fuller sociological analysis, see Michel Agier, Anthropologie du
Carnaval (Marseille: Parenth è ses, 2000).
8 . For a further discussion of the potential for cultural organizations to be
co-opted despite the resourcefulness of their political agenda, see Abner
Cohen, Masquerade Politics: Explorations in the Structure of Urban
Cultural Movements (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
9 . “ É d’Oxum,” on the DVD Ger ô nimo e Banda Mont’Serrat (Salvador:
Casa de Ger ô nimo, 2002).
10 . Il ê Aiy ê , “A Festa da Beleza Negra,” M ã e Hilda Jitolu (Salvador: Caderno
de Educa çã o, 2004), 40–42.
11 . See Carolina Moraes-Liu, Ebony Goddess (California: Document á rio,
2010) [DVD]. The cover aligns vertically photos of the three contestants
244 NOTES
deployed as case studies, wearing their overflowing Africanized garb
with varied coloring effects such as “full color,” “black and white,” and a
brownish “fade.” The DVD has won the African Diaspora Award in the
San Diego Black Film Festival, Best Short Documentary at the San Diego
Latino Film Festival, and was nominated as Best Short Documentary in
the Pan African Film Festival and Best Short Story Documentary at the
Cine Las Americas Film Festival, thus making Il ê Aiy ê even more visible
in the international arena. Il ê Aiy ê has been very conservative in terms
of access to its organization—a situation that has made Olodum, which
started in 1980 (six years after the founding of Il ê Aiy ê ), more com-
mercially savvy and organized. An additional merit of the DVD is the
language selection feature that includes subtitles in Portuguese, English,
and Spanish, which makes it an excellent tool for teachers.
12 . Afro-Brazilian faith considered as the dance in honor of the many Yoruba-
derived deities. Candombl é was brought to Brazil by African slaves in the
nineteenth century.
13 . Carolina Moraes-Liu, Ebony Goddess .
14 . The Candombl é faith has often suffered persecution and discrimination
at the hands of the Catholic Church, government campaigns, and police.
Discrimination against the religion recently increased with fanatical
televised evangelism that subjected the religion to criticism and accusa-
tion of “satanic” rituals. Although Candombl é won an important battle
in the Brazilian Supreme Court in 2005 in relation to this, the court’s
decision has yet to be implemented. For further studies on the repres-
sion of Candombl é in Bahia, see J ú lio Braga, “Candombl é in Bahia:
Repression and Resistance,” in Black Brazil: Culture, Identity, and
Social Mobilization , ed. Larry Crook and Randal Johnson (Los Angeles:
UCLA Latin American Center, 1999), 201–212; Michel Agier, “Between
Affliction and Politics: A Case Study of Bahian Candombl é ,” in Afro-
Brazilian Culture and Politics , ed. Hendrik Kraay (New York: M. E.
Sharpe, 1998), 134–157. For the appropriation of Candombl é as an instru-
ment of resistance, see also Mikelle Smith Omari-Tunkara, Manipulating
the Sacred: Yoruba Art, Ritual, and Resistance in Brazilian Candombl é
(Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 2005) and Rachel Harding,
A Refuge in Thunder: Candombl é and Alternative Spaces of Blackness
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000).
15 . For a more in-depth analysis of the contradictions, see Patr í cia de Santana
Pinho, Mama Africa: Reinventing Blackness in Bahia (Durham, NC and
London: Duke University Press, 2010), 144–145. See also Anadelia A.
Romo, Brazil’s Living Museum: Race, Reform, and Tradition in Bahia
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010) for an analysis of the
Center/Margins dialectic that sums up the Bahian condition between pres-
ervation of African culture and unequal conditions of the black population.
16 . Unless used in a friendly and affective context such as this one, the terms
neg ã o (big black man) and negona (big black woman) could actually be
offensive, provocative, or perceived as an insult.
NOTES 245
17 . On the exploration of myth and the reinscription of African deities
in African and African Diaspora literature, see Alexis Brooks de Vita,
Mythatypes: Signatures and Signs of African/Diaspora and Black Goddesses
(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000) and Wole Soyinka, Myth,
Literature and the African World (Cambridge/London: Cambridge
University Press, 1976).
18 . Interview with Macal é and Edmilson Lopes da Neves, December 15,
2008.
19 . A more detailed discussion of the place of celebrities is addressed in chap-
ter 7 on Afro-Carnival music as the genre that synthesizes many layers of
participation.
6 Vovô: The Man, His Vision, His Legacy
1 . Excerpt of poem “Quebranto” (evil eye) by Cuti. For the full cited trans-
lation see Niyi Afolabi et al., eds., Cadernos Negros/Black Notebooks:
Contemporary Afro-Brazilian Literary Movement (Trenton, NJ: Africa
World Press, 2008), 59.
2 . See Barbara Caine, Biography and History (New York: Palgrave, 2010).
3 . Ibid., 39–46.
4 . Most of my biographical assessments have thus been extracted from my
own personal interviews with Vov ô over the years, and interviews granted
to other scholars, authors, journalists, and students such as Michel Agier,
Rosane Santana, and Kirsten Weinoldt, among others, in addition to
lyrical analysis of songs composed by Il ê Aiy ê musicians. What may now
be considered as the first attempt to reconstruct Vov ô ’s life summarily
in one chapter should ideally be the beginning of a well-deserved, book-
length biography. That challenge must be left for insider-scholars or fam-
ily members in the future as the challenges of running the daily affairs
of the organization are such that there may not be time left for any such
focus by immediate relatives. Contrary to what some may deem a myste-
rious yet pompous personality, Vov ô is a rather humble, personable, and
accessible individual.
5 . Interview with Vov ô , December 15, 2009.
6 . Ibid.
7 . The naming of Afro-Bahian Carnival groups deserves a full-scale study
by Yoruba linguists or cultural anthropologists as they are mostly derived
from Yoruba language and culture, namely, Il ê Aiy ê (1974), Olodum
(1979), Okanbi (1981), Alab ê (1981), Alafin (1983), Araketu (1985),
Orunmila (1981), Olorum Baba Mi (1979), among many others. Naming
and identity in the African diaspora remains a worthwhile investigation
that is yet to be fully explored.
8 . Interview with Vov ô , December 15, 2009.
9 . Interview with M ã e Hilda, July 2, 1993
10 . “Obatala,” in Yoruba Poetry , ed. Ulli Beier (Bayreuth: Bayreuth African
Studies Series, 2002), 30.
246 NOTES
11 . See Kirsten Weinoldt’s interview with Vov ô , “Life School,” Brazzil
(November 1998), http://www.brazzil.com/musnov98.htm (accessed
August 5, 2015).
12 . Interview with Vov ô , June 6, 2010.
13 . Adam Blatner, “The Implications of Postmodernism for Psychotherapy,”
Individual Psychology 53, no. 4 (1997): 2.
14 . Ibid. See also David Feinstein and Stanley Krippner, Personal Mythology:
The Psychology of Your Evolving Self (Detroit, MI: Tarcher, 1988).
15 . Henry Drewal, “Art History, Agency, and Identity: Yoruba Transcultural
Currents in the Making of Black Brazil,” in Black Brazil: Culture, Identity,
and Social Mobilization ed. Larry Crook and Randal Johnson (Los
Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999), 143–174.
16 . Il ê Aiy ê , O Negro e o Poder: Cadernos de Educa çã o (Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê ,
2006), 32.
17 . Santana, “Interview with Ant ô nio Carlos dos Santos, Vov ô , President of
Il ê Aiy ê ,” 117–118.
18 . See Il ê Aiy ê : 25 Anos de Resist ê ncia (Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 1994), 29.
19 . For a fuller description of this ambivalent and ambiguous relationship,
see Walter Altino de Sousa Jr., O Il ê Aiy ê e a Rela çã o com o Estado: Interfaces e
Ambig ü idades entre Poder e Cultura na Bahia (Salvador: Fast Design, 2007).
20 . Interview with Vov ô , December 17, 2009.
7 Politics of Afro-Carnival Music
1 . For a fuller discussion of these maternal impulses and patterns, see Toni
Morrison’s Beloved as well as the cinematic adaptation with the same title.
2 . Peer Schouten, “James Scott on Agriculture as Politics, the Dangers
of Standardization and Not Being Governed,” Theory Talks #38 (May
15, 2010). http://www.theory-talks.org/2010/05/theory-talk-38.html
(accessed August 4, 2015).
3 . Vov ô ’s declaration is in the context of Band’Aiy ê as the representative
organ that propagates the values of the association and organization. As
of November 27, 2010, the quoted text could be found at http://www.
ileaiye.org.br/index2.htm .
4 . Henry Louis Gates Jr., “Celebrating Candombl é in Bahia,” The Root
(Feb. 16, 2010), http://www.theroot.com/articles/history/2010/02/
henry_louis_gates_the_african_roots_of_brazils_carnival.html (accessed
August 10, 2015).
5 . Cited in Michel Agier, “Canto Negro: Pequena Antologia dos Sambas do
Il ê Aiy ê ,” Il ê Aiy ê : A Inven çã o do Mundo Negro (Unpublished long essay,
1993), 145.
6 . Larry Crook, “Reinventing Africa and Remixing Hybridity: Blocos
Afro and Mangue Beat,” Music of Northeast Brazil , 2nd ed. (New York:
Routledge, 2005), 214. For an additional discussion of rewriting history
and reinventing Africa in Brazilian music, see also Peter Fryer, Rhythms of
NOTES 247
Resistance: African Musical Heritage in Brazil (Hanover, CT: Wesleyan
University Press, 2000), 13–26.
7 . Caetano Veloso, “Interview with Vov ô ,” Caetano na Bahia [1994] (DVD).
8 . See Niyi Afolabi, “A Festan ç a Brasileira: Carnaval em S ã o Paulo, no Rio e
na Bahia” (Unpublished Senior Thesis, University of Ife, Nigeria, 1984).
9 . Formerly featured on Il ê Aiy ê ’s website at http://www.ileaiye.org.br/
festival2003.htm (originally accessed November 27, 2010).
10 . Ibid.
11 . Ibid.
12 . Ibid.
13 . Ibid.
14 . Ibid.
15 . Ibid.
16 . Ant ô nio Pitanga, “Where Are the Blacks?” in Black Brazil: Culture,
Identity, and Social Mobilization , ed. Larry Crook and Randal Johnson
(Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999), 31–42.
17 . Jos é Jorge de Carvalho, “The Multiplicity of Black Identities in Brazilian
Popular Music,” in Black Brazil: Culture, Identity, and Social Mobilization
(Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999), 265.
18 . Ibid., 264.
19 . Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 72–110.
20 . Silviano Santiago, “O Entre Lugar do Discurso Latino Americano,” in
Uma Literatura nos Tr ó picos: Ensaios sobre Depend ê ncia Cultural (Rio de
Janeiro: Rocc ó , 2000), 13–25.
21 . This song has been analyzed in chapter 2 , “Emergence of an Afro-
Carnival Agency.”
22 . Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro I (Salvador: Warner Brothers, 1984), track 5.
23 . Gilberto Gil, cited in the inside jacket, Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro I
(Salvador: Warner Brothers, 1984).
24 . Ibid., track 5.
25 . Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro II (Salvador: Est ú dio Eldorado Ltda,
1984).
26 . Ibid.
27 . Ibid.
28 . Ibid.
29 . Patr í cia de Santana Pinho, Mama Africa , 35.
30 . Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro III (Amaz ô nia: Velas Produ çõ es, 1996).
31 . Ibid.
32 . “Minha Origem,” composed by Vicente de Paulo and sung by Gra ç a Ona�ilê.
See Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro III (Amaz ô nia: Velas Produ çõ es, 1996).
33 . “Evolu çã o da Ra ç a,” composed by Buzziga and sung by Guiguio. See Il ê
Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro III (Amaz ô nia: Velas Produ çõ es, 1996).
34 . See “Popula çã o Magoada,” Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro III (Amaz ô nia:
Velas Produ çõ es, 1996).
248 NOTES
35 . Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro IV (S ã o Paulo: Natasha Records, 1999).
36 . Ibid.
37 . Ibid., track 12 (Heran ç as Bantos).
38 . See “Adeus Bye Bye,” Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro IV (S ã o Paulo: Natasha
Records, 1999).
39 . See “Me Leve Amor,” Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro IV (S ã o Paulo: Natasha
Records, 1999).
40 . Beleza Pura: Il ê Aiy ê , O Belo da Liberdade was produced by TVE (Bahia
State Television) in 2004.
8 (Un)Masking the Afro-Carnival Organization
1 . Interview with Dr. Cheryl Sterling. Comments were recorded while
attending the Il ê Aiy ê ’s Carnival rehearsal on December 10, 2010 at the
headquarters in Curuzu-Liberdade. Dr. Sterling is a professor at New
York University where she teaches African and African diaspora literature
and cultures with emphasis on African, Caribbean, and Latin American
connections.
2 . James Scott argues in his works, especially in Domination and the Arts of
Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
1990) that the oppressed, such as the peasants in Southeast Asia, do not
consent to domination.
3 . Milton Nascimento is one of the major musicians from Minas Gerais and
with a prominent place in Brazilian popular music.
4 . Interview with Geruse Menezzes, in her Cia das Tran ç as Beauty Salon in
Curuzu-Liberdade, December 16, 2010.
5 . Interview with an anonymous Afro-Brazilian writer, December 18, 2010.
6 . Interview with Macal é , December 12, 2008.
7 . Interview with Aliomar de Jesus Almeida, December 13, 2010.
8 . Interview with Edmilson Lopes da Neves, December 15, 2010.
9 . This phrase ( o sistema é bruto ) refers to a police-sponsored TV program,
which suggests that if citizens misbehave, they always get caught or will
be punished for any breach of moral standards. In a threatening state-
ment by the caricature-ish police officer in the propaganda clip, the offi-
cer states, “If you get caught, your entire household is history because the
system is brutal .” The implication is that being on the wrong side of the
law leads to total ruin. Another term used rather colloquially to suggest
that one cannot escape from the long arm of the law is: se correr o bicho
pega, se ficar o bicho come , loosely translated as, “you are damned if you
run, and you are damned if you stay.”
10 . Interview with Hildelice Benta dos Santos, Director, Salvador, Bahia,
December 13, 2010.
11 . Interview with Macal é (Wilson Batista Santos), December 13, 2010.
12 . Interview with Bamba, December 13, 2010.
13 . Interview with Raimundo, December 13, 2010.
NOTES 249
14 . Interview with Josenice Guimar ã es, December 17, 2010.
15 . Interview with Billy Arquimimo, December 21, 2010.
16 . Ibid.
17 . Interview with Ant ô nio Carlos Taiwo Boa Morte dos Santos, December
17, 2010.
18 . Ibid.
19 . Interview with Jacilda Trindade Teles, December 13, 2010.
20 . Ibid.
21 . Interview with Arlindo Concei çã o, December 13, 2010.
22 . Interview with Jureli Fran ç a Bonfim, December 13, 2010.
23 . Interview with Alzilema Purifica çã o Santo Barme, December 15, 2010.
24 . Interview with Aline Cristina Pereira Reis, December 17, 2010.
25 . Interview with Maria Lu í sa Passos dos Santos, December 17, 2010.
26 . Ibid. Emphasis mine.
27 . Interview with Gelton de Oliveira, December 15, 2010.
28 . Ibid.
29 . Interview with Alex Sandro Teles, December 23, 2010.
30 . Interview with Mohammed Camara, December 13, 2010.
31 . Ibid.
32 . Interview with Roseane Pereira Alves, December 14, 2010.
33 . Ibid.
34 . Interview with Ardubor D. Silva, December 13, 2010.
35 . Interview with Vin í cius Silva da Silva, December 13, 2010.
36 . Ibid.
37 . Interview with Ademilton Jesus Santos, December 13, 2010.
38 . Interview with Ana Am é lia Dias Santos, December 13, 2010.
39 . Interview with Maria Luisa Monte Correia, December 15, 2010.
40 . Interview with Joseane Paim, December 18, 2010.
41 . Ibid.
42 . Interview with Jurim Assun çã o dos Santos, December 17, 2010.
43 . Interview with Rivanildo Divino, December 17, 2010.
44 . Interview with Erval Soares Souza, December 17, 2010.
45 . Ibid.
46 . Interview with Anizaldo Ferreira de Sousa Filho, December 17, 2010.
47 . See also the interview with hairdresser Geruse Menezzes, earlier in this
chapter.
Conclusion
1 . For this specially composed song for Il ê Aiy ê , see Caetano Veloso, “Um
Canto de Afox é ,” Brazil Classics I , David Byrne, comp. (New York:
Luaka Bop, 2000). DVD.
2 . See Anadelia A. Romo, Brazil’s Living Museum: Race, Reform, and Tradition
in Bahia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 157.
3 . Jon Beasley-Murray, Posthegemony: Political Theory and Latin America
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010), 226.
250 NOTES
4 . Maculel ê refers to an Afro-Brazilian dance mixed with martial arts in
which a group of people gather in a circle and rhythmically strike sticks
together to produce melody accompanied by singing.
5 . Cazumb á refers to rhythmical and gyrating Africa-derived dance moves.
6 . Il ê Aiy ê , “Rituais Africanos,” in Cadernos de Educa çã o: A Rota dos
Tambores no Maranh ã o (Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 2003), 32.
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Aching, Gerard. Masking and Power: Carnival and Popular Culture in the
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Arquimimo, Billy (coordinator of Turismo É tnico Afro ), December 21, 2010;
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Camara, Mohammed (member of Band’Erê), December 13, 2010.
Concei çã o, Arlindo (administrative assistant), December 13, 2010.
Correia, Maria Lu í sa Monte (cleaner), December 15, 2010.
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Macal é (director of Il ê Aiy ê ), December 12 and 13, 2010.
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Paim, Joseane (psychotherapist), December 18, 2010.
Raimundo (director of Il ê Aiy ê ), December 13, 2010.
Reis, Aline Cristina Pereira (teacher), December 17, 2010.
Santos, Ademilton Jesus (messenger), December 13, 2010.
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Santos, Ant ô nio Carlos Taiwo Boa Morte dos (administrative assistant),
December 17, 2010.
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Santos, Jurim Assun çã o dos (security guard and drummer), December 17, 2010.
Santos, Maria Lu í sa Passos dos (Il ê Aiy ê ’s ex-teacher, and currently coordinator
of the Institute Nextel in Pelourinho), December 17, 2010.
Silva, Ardubor D. (gatekeeper), December 13, 2010.
Silva, Vin í cius Silva da (musician and gatekeeper), December 13, 2010.
Sousa Filho, Anizaldo Ferreira de (drummer for Il ê Aiy ê ), December 17, 2010.
Souza, Erval Soares (owner of Bar do Inho in Curuzu-Liberdade), December 17,
2010.
Sterling, Cheryl (New York University professor), December 10, 2010.
Teles, Alex Sandro (teacher and musician), December 23, 2010.
Teles, Jacilda Trindade (administrative assistant), December 13, 2010.
Vov ô , Ant ô nio Carlos dos Santos (president of Il ê Aiy ê ), December 12, 2010.
Woman X (Curuzu community entrepreneur), December 13 and 20, 2010.
Periodicals and Newspapers
Correio da Bahia . Salvador, (1970–2010).
Jornal da Bahia . Salvador (1970–2000).
Jornal do Brasil . Rio de Janeiro (1970–2010).
Manchete . Rio de Janeiro: Bloch Editores (1970–2000).
Veja . S ã o Paulo: Editora Abril. (1970–2000).
BIBLIOGRAPHY 267
Audio/Video/Disco/Filmography
Ger ô nimo. Ger ô nimo e Banda Mont’Serrat . DVD. Salvador: Casa de Ger ô nimo,
2002.
Il ê Aiy ê . Canto Negro . Audio CD. Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê Group, 1984.
Il ê Aiy ê . Canto Negro . Audio CD. Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê Group, 1989.
Il ê Aiy ê . Black Chant . Audio CD. Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê Group, 1995.
Il ê Canta a Liberdade [Il ê Sings Freedom]. DVD. Salvador:TVE Bahia, 1995.
Il ê Aiy ê . 25 Anos . Audio CD. Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê Group, 1999.
Il ê Aiy ê . Canto Negro . Audio CD. Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê Group, 2006.
Il ê Aiy ê . Bonito de se Ver . DVD. Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê Group, 2015.
Mercury, Daniela. O Canto da Cidade. Audio CD. Salvador: 1993.
Montes-Bradley, Eduardo. Samba on Your Feet . DVD. New York: Patagonia Film
Group, 2006. English & Portuguese.
Moraes-Liu, Carolina. Bloco Afro and Afox é . DVD.Salvador: Document á rio, 2010.
———. Ebony Goddess: Queen of Il ê Aiy ê . DVD. Salvador: Document á rio, 2012.
———. Ebony Goddess . DVD. Salvador: Document á rio, 2012.
———. Festive Land: Carnaval in Bahia . DVD. Salvador: Educational Television
(TVE), 2001.
Various Artists. Pure Brazil 2: Rio Bahia Carnival . Audio CD. Salvador:
Educational Television (TVE), 2006.
Various Artists. Ax é Bahia . 2 volumes. DVD. Salvador: Dolby, 2007.
Veloso, Caetano. “Interview with Vov ô .” Caetano na Bahia . DVD. Salvador:
Educational Television (TVE), 1994.
A Note on Web Sources
Many of the web pages consulted for this book are no longer online. In some
cases, however, the Internet Archive (archive.org) will have stored a “snapshot”
of the page. Go to https://www.archive.org and then enter the desired
defunct URL into their “Wayback Machine” to access available archived web
sources.
A Mulherada (Carnival group), x, 2, 66
Abdias, Mestre, 102
Abiodun, Rowland, 242n. 11
abolition, 7, 9, 13, 32, 38, 40, 52, 62,
72, 75, 85, 87, 89, 96, 97, 149,
229, 237n. 14
ABRINQ Foundation, 137
accounting, 138, 148, 207
adamu orisa, 5
Adelson, 159, 180, 181
Ademário, 177, 183
adoption, 212, 213
adrinka, 107
Afolabi, Niyi, x, xii, xv, 2, 41, 64, 69,
81, 129, 132–3, 135, 149, 153,
159, 164, 165, 186, 192, 194,
198, 202, 209, 213, 215, 219,
229, 231n. 1
afoxé, 2, 10, 14–16, 35–7, 44, 66, 90,
162, 189, 221, 224, 231n. 4,
233n. 13
African history, 30, 79, 83, 96, 103,
152, 154, 161, 164, 165, 169,
173, 176, 183
African values. See values, African
Africanity, xviii, xxiii, 79, 80, 82,
160, 182, 229
Africanization, xxvi, 2, 14, 16, 20,
27, 38, 71, 75, 77, 82, 86, 98,
99, 108, 111, 152, 162, 174,
176, 200, 224, 235n. 34
Afro-Bahianness, xviii, xxiii
Afrocentrism, 16, 17, 42, 44, 60, 76,
109, 110, 178
agbada (garment), 81
agency (office), 193, 200, 225
agency (power of acting), 17–27,
chapter 2 (passim), 76, 89, 110,
129, 139, 145, 157, 158, 169,
183, 186, 207, 213, 218, 223,
224–6, 229
Agier, Michel, 21, 22, 71, 116,
236n. 48–9, 241n. 34–5,
243n. 7, 244n. 14, 245n. 4,
246n. 5
Akan (people), 94
Alabê (Carnival group), 245n. 7
Alafin (Carnival group), 245n. 7
Alagoas, 51, 57, 63, 97
Alazarrô, Robertinho, 159
Alcione, 146
Almeida, Aliomar de Jesus, 30, 148,
149, 197, 198
Almiro, 100
Altair, 159, 164, 181
Alto das Pombas, 210
Alves, Castro, 23, 41, 42, 206
Alves, Marcos, 166
Alves, Roseane Pereira, 214, 249n. 32
Amado, Jorge, 41, 120, 232n. 4
Amerindians, 10
ancestors/ancestrality, 4–6, 9, 12, 23,
28, 41, 52–4, 56–9, 62, 68, 70,
73, 74, 80, 83, 95, 98, 102, 104,
106, 127, 128, 137, 143, 159,
170, 172, 174, 175, 178, 191,
197, 234n. 19
Andrews, George Reid, 233n. 11
Angelou, Maya, 111
Angola, 10, 47, 59, 87, 95, 97, 142,
226, 227
Apaches de Tororó, 10, 100
Index
270 INDEX
Apolônio de Jesus (co-founder of Ilê
Aiyê), 30, 49, 58, 134–6, 174,
203, 232n. 6
Aragão, Reginaldo, 159
Araketu (Carnival group), 30, 112,
114, 245n. 7
Arani, 100
Araújo, Ana Lúcia, 21, 23
Araújo, Emanuel, 102
Argentina, 4
Arízio, 100, 192
Armstrong, Piers, 11, 16, 17, 40, 41,
236n. 43, 238n. 20–2, 240n. 8
Arquimedes, 100
Arquimimo, Billy, 3, 202–4, 232n. 9,
249n. 15
Ashanti (people), 87, 94, 173, 227
aso oke cloth, 82
Auxiliadora, 99
Averill, Gage, 7, 237n. 27
axé, 10, 47, 54, 83, 104, 111, 154,
159, 162, 176, 238n. 25
Azevedo, Ana Rosa, 48
babalawo, 128
babalorixá, 51
Babayemi, S. O., 234n. 19
Bacalhau, Luis (poet), 61
Bacelar, Jeferson, 241n. 9–10
Bafo, Master, 99, 159
Bahamas, 4–6, 9, 234n. 21
Bahia Folia trophy, 158
Bahiatursa, 3, 196, 202, 225, 232n. 9
Bahutu (people), 90
Bajokwe (people), 92
Bakhtin, Mikhail, 11, 13–15, 35,
235n. 35
Bamba, 100, 147, 200, 201, 248n. 12
Banco do Brasil, 225
Banda Mel, 162
Band’Aiyê, 31, 70, 99, 136, 143, 154,
158–60, 165, 181, 190, 212,
246n. 3
Band’Erê, xiii, 31, 53, 100, 136, 143,
154, 158–60, 190, 198, 208,
209, 212, 213, 215
Bandes (company), 192
Bantu (people), 87, 93, 95, 181, 182
Bar, Zanzibar, 15
Barbados, 6, 125
Barme, Alzilema Purificação Santo, xi,
208, 209, 211
Barreto, 100
Barreto, Lima, 206
Batatinha, 42, 102
batucada, 57
batuques (drums), 21
Beasley-Murray, Jon, 226
beauty, 5, 9, 14, 30, 31, 40–5,
48, 50, 61, 66–70, 77, 79,
80, 82, 84, 88, 98, 99, 109–11,
113–21, 123–8, 142, 146,
152, 162, 169, 173–5, 177,
178, 181, 188, 190, 191, 200,
201, 216, 218–20, 223, 224,
229, 238n. 30, 248n. 4
Beier, Ulli, 242n. 11, 245n. 10
Beija-Flor (samba school), 23
Beleza Pura: Ilê Aiyê, O Belo da
Liberdade (DVD), 182, 183
Belgium, 47, 92
Belo Horizonte, 36
Benin, 47, 61, 63, 135
berimbau, 86, 242n. 16
Berlin Conference, 94
Bermuda, 125, 234n. 21
Berry, Jason, 235n. 28
Bethânia, Maria, 146, 154
Bettelheim, Judith, 231n. 1,
235n. 32
Bhabha, Homi, 171
Bimba, Mestre, 102
birds, 81, 83, 100, 106, 165.
See also doves
Bisa (people), 91
Bjork, 159
Black, Vandinho, 100
Black Atlantic, 22
Black Beauty pageant.
See Deusa do Ébano
black bird, 100, 165
black chant, 100, 159, 226
INDEX 271
black consciousness, xiii, 13, 15, 30,
32, 36, 46, 50, 57, 62, 65, 66,
68, 87, 95, 96, 105, 116, 124,
127, 132, 139, 140, 142, 170,
211, 227, 232n. 6
Black Consciousness Day, 38, 40, 55,
96, 99, 110, 142
black motherhood, 57, 58, 60, 62,
70–4, 77, 174
Black Mother’s Day, 19, 55, 57, 58,
142, 146, 162
Black Mother’s Week, 70, 110, 142,
162, 195. See also Semana da
Mãe Preta
Black Music Festival, 19, 142, 143,
146, 163–5, 175, 195, 211, 224
black power, 14, 56, 65, 81, 84
Black Power movement, 19, 31, 33,
55, 56, 139, 160
black pride, 15, 16, 18, 23, 27, 30,
52, 75, 104, 108, 110, 111, 118,
146, 152, 176, 177, 200, 211,
223, 227, 229
blackness, 1, 14, 15, 17, 26, 31, 42,
61, 65, 67–9, 76, 79, 80, 110,
113–15, 118, 120, 126, 132,
160, 170, 173, 175
Blatner, Adam, 138, 246n. 13
blaxploitation, 170
bloco alternativo, 47–8, 239n. 36
bloco negro-mestiço, 17
blocos afros, 2–4, 10, 14, 16, 17, 30,
33, 35–7, 39, 40, 42–5, 66, 75,
76, 85, 90, 151, 161, 171, 178,
189, 221, 231n. 4, 233n. 13
blocos índios, 10, 17
blues music, 22
Bobo-Dyula (people), 91
Bolivia, 4
Bonfim, Jureli França, 204, 207
bongolafini cloth, 82
Bourbon Street, 8
Bourdieu, Pierre, 19, 46, 236n. 45,
238n. 34
Boyce Davies, Carole, 231n. 2
Brahma (beer), 225
Brandão, Leci, 47, 146, 154, 159, 183
Brasília, 155
Brazilian Quarter of Lagos, x
breastfeeding, 100
British Museum, 237n. 4
Brito, Valmir, 61, 167
Brooklyn, NY, 4, 6, 9
Brooklyn Carnival, 9
Brown, Carlinhos, 2, 146, 159, 183
Brown, James, 14, 160
Browning, Barbara, 231n. 2
Buarque, Chico, 21
buba (garment), 81
Burkina Faso. See Upper Volta
Burundi, 90
Butler, Kim D., 37, 38, 65, 237n. 14,
238n. 17, 240n. 25
Buzziga, 247n. 33
Cabelo, José Carlos (poet), 169
Caboclo, 63
Cacunda de Iaiá/Cacunda de Yayá.
See Gege Salvalu Cacunda de Iaiá
Cadernos de Educação (Education
Notebooks), 136–7, 139
Caine, Barbara, 133, 245n. 2
Caldas, Luiz, 47, 162
Calmon, Francisco, 241n. 7
calypso, 9
Camaçari, 135
Camafeu, Paulinho, 31, 89, 156, 161,
183
Camara, Mohammed (stowaway), 213
Cambui, 100
Cameroon, 87, 93, 97
Campbell, Naomi, 115, 128, 129, 146
Canada, 4
Candomblé, 39, chapter 3 (passim),
53, 58, 65, 113, 117, 206, 213
African elements of, 15
Carnival, association with, 10, 16,
69, 79, 82, 224
Carnival, influence on, 15
clothing, 55, 68, 179
dance style of, 117, 120, 122, 128
etymology of, 128
272 INDEX
Candomblé, 39, chapter 3
(passim)—Continued
Lavagem do Bonfim, 56
motifs, 2, 99–100, 104
ogans (initiates), 140
persecution of, 122
possession rituals, 15
resistance, 85
rituals, 98, 120, 127, 129
(see also Candomblé:
possession rituals)
roles of women in, 127–8
state support of, 51
symbols, 107, 172
tourism and, 179
values of, 64
Yoruba expressions derived
from, 59
see also Ilê Axé Jitolu and Ilê Aiyê:
Candomblé connections
Canto Negro (album), xxvii, 151, 153,
172–4
Canto Negro II (album), xxvii, 153,
159, 174, 176
Canto Negro III (album), xxvii, 153,
159, 178–80
Canto Negro IV (album), xxvii, 153,
159, 172, 181
capoeira, 10, 15, 55, 85, 86, 98, 227
Cardoso, Fernando, 96
Caribbean, 7–9, 11, 12, 22, 31, 47, 76
Carneiro, Edison, 22, 241n. 7
Carneiro, Master, 99, 159
Carnival
African influence, 6, 7, 10, 15
Candomblé influence, 15
characteristics, 6
contests marginalization, 8
co-optation of, 7, 14, 18
economic impact, 10
identity, affirms/recuperates, 8, 16
international variants, 6–9
mingles sacred and profane, 12, 16,
69, 71, 114
music is integral, 20
politically motivated, 6, 11, 12
protest, vehicle of, 11
reenact history, 13
renewal, 6, 9, 11, 12
without rival, 14
role reversal/hierarchical inversion,
9, 11, 13, 30, 35
scheduling, 6
Carnival costumes, x, 85 (high cost),
2, 6, 9, 11, 34, 35, 43, 69,
chapter 4 (passim), 108, 137,
165, 168, 172, 173, 178,
179–80, 200, 203, 229
Carnival groups. See A Mulherada,
Alabê, Alafin, Araketu,
Cortejo Afro, Didá, Embaixada
Africana, Filhos de Gandhi,
Frente Negra Brasileira,
Ilê Aiyê, Malê Debalê,
Mangueira, Melo do Banzu,
Muzenza, Okanbi, Olodum,
Olorum Baba Mi, Reis do
Congo, Vai Levando, Vai-Vai
Carnival themes (list), 87–8
Caroline, Viviam, 231n. 2
Caroso, Carlos, 241n. 9–10
Carrara, Sérgio, 76, 241n. 1
Carvalho, Edson, 176
Carvalho, José Jorge de, 170–1
Castro, Ulisses (poet), 61
Catholic Church, Catholicism, 13,
56, 100, 126, 179, 244n. 14
Cayman Islands, 234n. 21
cazumbá, 226, 250n. 5
Central Africa, 177
Césaire, Aimé, 32, 76
Charmitte, Joseana dos Santos, 119,
123, 124
charter schools, 189
Cheikh Lô Lamp Fall, 159
Chica da Silva. See Xica da Silva
Chiclete com Banana, 162
China, 93
Christmas, 78, 212
Cidade Alta & Baixa (districts of
Salvador), xviii
Cinema Transcendental (album), 42
INDEX 273
Cissa, 104, 182
civil rights, 23, 55, 88, 105, 129, 228,
232n. 5
Civil Rights Movement, 19, 27, 37,
38, 42, 84, 105
Clarke, Duncan, 242n. 11
class (social), 12, 16, 33, 38, 85, 116,
118, 140, 141, 162, 189, 223
Cliff, Jimmy, 16, 43, 119
clinical pathology, 135, 138
Cohen, Abner, 12, 116, 234n. 18,
243n. 8
Collor, Fernando, 96
Colombia, 4, 233n. 15, 234n. 21
colonialism, xxv, 7, 8, 32, 41, 72, 76,
77, 79, 86, 90, 92, 95, 103, 125,
126, 139, 142, 166, 227, 234n. 23,
237n. 4
commodification, xiv, 23, 90
Conceição, Arlindo, 204, 207
Conceição, Jônatas. See Silva,
Jônatas Conceição da
conferences, 191
Congadas, 170
Congo, 17, 79, 82, 87, 91, 92, 95, 97,
174, 176, 177, 226, 233n. 13
Congo River, 177
Congo-Brazzaville, 87
Congo-Zaire, 87, 91, 92
conscience, 131, 208
consciousness
African, 125
Afro-Brazilian, 38
Bahian-African, 16, 19
black, 13, 15, 30, 32, 36, 38, 40,
46, 50, 55, 57, 62, 65, 66, 68,
87, 95, 96, 105, 110, 116, 124,
127, 132, 139, 140, 142, 170,
176, 211, 227, 232n. 6
carnival, 13
diasporic, 14
human, 13
identity, 32, 158
Negritude, 15
pan-African, 16, 84, 89, 120
political, 18
consciousness raising, 19, 30, 36, 37,
46, 66, 110, 113, 124, 138, 144,
154, 158, 198, 232n. 6
Coral Erê, 160
cordel poem, 71, 73
cornmeal, 49, 56
Correia, Maria Luísa Monte, 217
Corró, 100
corruption, 96, 101, 103, 225.
See also Ilê Aiyê: corruption
Cortejo Afro (Carnival group), x, 3,
18, 232n. 9
Cosentino, Donald, 235n. 27
cosmology, 12, 14, 161.
See also Yoruba cosmology
Covin, David, 37, 38, 237n. 13–14,
238n. 18
cowrie shells, 28, 29, 43, 81, 83,
87, 93–5, 97, 103–5, 107,
172, 237n. 3
creolization, 9
Cristiano, 159, 164, 181
Crook, Larry, 162, 237n. 11, 239n. 8,
240n. 26, 241n. 9, 244n. 14,
246n. 15, 246n. 6, 247n. 16
crossroads, 11, 12, 81, 94
Crowley, Daniel J., 11, 12, 15,
236n. 37
Cruz, Roberto, 61
Cuba, 4, 5, 159, 231n. 1
cultural performance, 1, 3, 22
cultural transnationalism, xviii, xx, xxi
Currie, Paileen, xii
Curuzu-Liberdade (neighborhood),
xiii, xviii, xxvi, xxvii, 14, 15, 17,
18, 20, 27, 28, 34, 40–3, 49, 51,
52, 55, 59, 61, 62, 65, 70, 85,
94, 96, 99–101, 114, 115, 120,
121, 127, 135, 139, 142, 148,
160, 166, 168, 169, 173, 181,
182, 186, 191, 218, 219, 224,
232n. 6
Cuti (poet), 133
Dagara-Lobi (people), 91
Dahomey. See Benin
274 INDEX
DaMatta, Roberto, 11, 13, 14, 16,
35, 56, 236n. 40, 236n. 42,
240n. 11
Dança Afro, xiii
Dario, 100
Dávila, Michael R., 89, 242n. 17
Day of the Child, 160
dead, the, 6, 12, 234n. 19
decolonization, 178
deities. See Caboclo, Esu, Gegê,
Nanã, Obaluaiyê, Obatala,
Oduduwa, Ogum, Ogun,
Olodumaré, Omolu, Orisanla,
orixá, Orunmila, Oxalá, Oxossi,
Oxum, Oxumare, Sànpo nná,
Sopona, Xangô, Yemojá
Department of African and African
Diaspora Studies, xi
Deusa do Ébano (Black Beauty
pageant), 111, 114, 143
Dia da Consciência Negra. See Black
Consciousness Day
Dias, Aniceto Manoel (father of
Mãe Hilda), 62
diaspora, xi, xii, xv, xviii, xx, xxiii–xxv,
1, 5–9, 12–14, 20, 38, 39, 76, 77,
79, 82, 83, 87–9, 96, 104, 105,
107, 108, 110, 125, 141, 160–2,
164, 165, 171, 172, 176, 178, 196,
215, 224, 228, 229, 245n. 7
dictatorship, 31, 88, 96, 103, 132
Didá (Carnival group), x, xii, 2,
159, 231
Didi, Mestre, 56
Diehl, Randy, xi
Divino, Rivanildo, xi, 219
Djavan, 129
djembe (musical instrument), 153
DNA, 160
Dodô. See Nascimento, Adolfo
Dogbe, Y. E., 86, 242n. 15
Dominican Republic, 4, 234n. 21
doves, 20, 41, 56, 122, 236n. 46,
243n. 29. See also birds
Drewal, Henry J., 66, 107, 139, 234n.
20, 240n. 26, 243n. 31, 246n. 15
Drewal, Margaret, 234n. 20
drums, drumming, 3, 6, 9, 11, 15,
20, 21, 57, 64, 70, 75, 76, 81,
83, 84, 87, 94, 99, 104, 106, 124,
128, 140, 143, 152–4, 157, 159,
174–6, 178, 180, 181, 183, 206,
208, 215, 217, 218, 226, 227,
232n. 5, 237n. 3
Du Bois, W. E. B., 157, 187
Dunn, Christopher, 11, 16, 31, 32,
235n. 34, 237n. 7, 240n. 8
Dwennimmen (ram’s horns), 107
Dzidzienyo, Anani, 4, 233n. 12
Ebony Goddess, 19, 34, 41, 45,
66–70, 109, 109–29, 112, 142,
143, 159, 174, 175, 190, 191,
220, 224
Ebony Queen (contestant for title of
Ebony Goddess), 154
criticism of, 188
economy/economics, 1, 2, 4, 9, 10,
12, 14, 17, 18, 22, 25, 26, 29,
36, 41, 45, 46, 62, 84, 85, 90,
92, 95, 96, 101, 112, 116, 125,
140, 141, 153, 170, 171, 218,
224–8
Ecuador, 4, 20, 47, 87, 88, 105–7,
129, 164–7, 234n. 21
education, 18, 20, 36, 49, 50, 52, 57,
64, 81, 84, 98, 105, 116, 136,
137, 144, 145, 147–9, 155, 160,
164, 165, 183, 187, 193, 194,
198, 199, 201, 202, 206–13,
215–17, 219, 228
egungun masquerade, 5–7, 12, 56,
234n. 19
Egypt, 16, 21
Eldorado (record label), 153
Eliade, Mircea, 114, 243n. 5
Eliete, 99
elites/elitism, 5, 7, 16, 17, 22, 34, 38,
40, 75, 76, 79, 86, 97, 125, 128,
156, 162, 234n. 23
Embaixada Africana (Carnival group),
75, 79
INDEX 275
embranqueamento, 32
empowerment, xiv–xvi, xx, xxi, xiv,
xxvii, xxviii, 3, 10, 12, 17, 18,
20–3, 30, 33, 39, 40, 44, 46, 59,
66, 75, 76, 78, 79, 82, 103, 108,
110, 118, 119, 122, 123, 126,
145, 147, 148, 156, 158, 165,
172, 178, chapter 8 (passim),
224, 225, 227–8
Engenho Velho de Federação, 232n. 8
engineering, 134, 135
England, 4, 47
Epiphany, 56
equality/inequality/disparity, 2, 25,
61, 65, 73, 77, 78, 80, 88, 108,
121, 129, 133, 140, 149, 166,
169, 170, 173, 193, 196, 199,
208, 223, 226, 228, 244n. 15
economic, 9, 84
educational, 212
gender, 188, 190, 193, 196, 198
political, 84
racial, 23, 25, 27, 30, 36–8, 40, 73,
86, 89, 100, 110, 117, 145, 149,
151, 156, 161, 174, 178, 190,
193, 196, 206, 211
social, 11, 14, 21, 23, 35–7, 108,
112, 113, 125, 227, 243n. 32
Eron, Master, 159
Escola Aberta, xii
Escola Parque, 135
Escola Profissionalizante, 31, 208,
210, 220
escolas de samba, 23, 38, 160, 233n. 13
Esu, 11, 12
ethnicity, 4, 5, 15–17, 33, 38, 41, 89,
90, 92–5, 97, 124, 160, 171, 220,
225, 227, 234n. 16, 235n. 29
ethnomusicology, 171
Eurocentrism, 7, 110, 175
Evangelista, Neve and Genivaldo, 180
expenses. See Ilê Aiye: finances
Eyre, Banning, 242n. 20
Falola, Toyin, xi
Famule, Olawole, 234n. 20
Fanti-Ashanti (people), 94
Farias, Cosme de, 102
Farias, Valter, 43, 60, 99, 159, 181, 182
Feijão, Paulinho, 177
Feinstein, David, 246n. 14
Fernando, 100, 191
Festa da Mãe Preta, 55, 57, 63, 129
Festas Juninas, 136
Festival da Música Negra. See Black
Music Festival
Filhas de Gandhi (Carnival group), 2,
66, 231n. 2
Filhas de Olorum, 66
Filhas d’Oxum (Carnival group), 2,
66, 231n. 2
filhas-de-santo, 127, 128, 206
Filho, Anizaldo Ferreira de Sousa,
220
Filhos de Gandhi (Carnival group),
2, 3, 10, 15, 16, 36, 40, 41, 43,
44–6, 66, 75, 90, 100, 101, 189,
232n. 4
food, 42, 63, 106, 142 (feijoada,
acarajé, vatapá, caruru, abará,
sarapatel, xinxin de bofe, mocotó,
and rabada), 146
fortifications, 93
France, 47, 221
Frazão, Heliana, 48, 239n. 36–7
freedom, 6, 11, 14, 16, 23, 27, 28,
30, 38, 40, 71, 72, 96–8, 118,
123, 126, 139, 140, 142, 145,
146, 148, 167, 179, 180, 206,
223, 226–8. See also liberation
Freitas, Joseania, 238n. 23
Frente Negra Brasileira (Carnival
group), 36, 100
Fry, Peter, 76, 241n. 1
Fryer, Peter, 246n. 6
Fulani (people), 91
Fulbe (people), 91
funk, 227
Gama, Luiz, 206
Garcia, Jorge, 226
Garvey, Marcus, 105
276 INDEX
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., 12, 160,
235n. 36, 246n. 4
Gegê. See Caboclo
Gege Salvalu Cacunda de Iaiá
(Candomblé temple), 60,
62, 63
gender, xi, xv, xvii, 16, 38, 66, 75,
188, 190, 193, 196, 198, 201,
223. See also equality: gender
gentrification, 8
Germans, 90
Germany, 47, 92
Gerônimo, 47, 66, 117, 146, 154
Gesteira, Martagão, 102
Ghana, 82, 87, 94, 97, 173
Gibi, 180
Gil, Gilberto, 2, 39, 89, 101, 129,
146, 154, 171, 173, 183
Gilroy, Paul, 6, 171, 234n. 22,
247n. 19
globalization, 30, 43, 65, 118, 119,
183, 188, 196
Gomes, Edson, 66
Gonzales, Lélia, 102, 103
Gonzalez, Lélia, 102, 103
Gordon, Edmund, xi
gourds, 92, 93, 95, 104, 107, 242n. 16
Governo do Estado da Bahia, 231n. 2
Graça. See Ona�ilê, Graça
Gramsci, Antonio, 46, 140, 141, 155
grassroots, 84, 155
Green, Garth L., 7, 235n. 25
grooming (personal), 219–20
guardian spirit, xiii, xxvi, 12, 28,
49, 50, 53, 55, 57, 58, 60, 61,
104, 143
Guiguio, 43, 159, 164, 180–3
Guimarães, Josenice, 201
Guinea, 165
Guinea-Conakry, 213
Guridy, Frank, xi
Gurma (people), 94
Gurmanché (people), 91
Gurunsi (people), 91
Gusmão, Mário, 34, 102
habitus theory, 19
Haiti, 4, 7, 233n. 11, 234n. 21
Hall, Stuart, 124
Hanchard, Michael, 37, 237n. 14,
238n. 15
Harlem, NY, 4, 9, 18, 76, 86
Harlem Renaissance, 76, 86
hegemony, 1, 4, 10, 19, 24, 33, 37,
40, 84, 117, 140, 141, 155, 157,
190, 226–8
hegemony, cultural, 40, 140–1
hegemony, white, 10, 33, 141
Henry, Clarence Bernard, 89, 242n. 19
heroes/heroines, 23, 38, 57, 68, 77,
79, 97, 102, 118, 139, 142, 161,
167, 206
heteroglossia, 11
hidden transcripts, 24–5, 155, 157–8,
160, 170, 175, 188–9, 226
Hindus, 7
hip-hop, 227
Hoare, Quintin, 238n. 34
Hobart, Angela, 236n. 42
Holland, 47
humility, 107
Hutu (people), 90
identity, xxiii, 7, 8, 30, 32, 65, 67,
104, 110, 119, 124, 132, 137,
170, 178, 179, 195, 220
African, 76, 79, 80, 132, 154
Afro-Bahian, 42
Afro-Brazilian, 57, 65–8, 116,
124
black, 33, 35, 54, 65, 108, 110,
119, 178, 209, 225
educational, 209
identity politics, 176
of Ilê Aiyê, xxiv, 25
national, 24, 173
neighborhood, 18
pan-African, 52, 245n. 7
political, 6, 12
racial, 12, 23, 89, 124, 125, 228
sexual, 209
INDEX 277
ideology, 3, 14, 16, 18, 23–7, 30,
33, 35, 45–8, 67, 68, 75–7,
80–2, 84, 85, 95, 101, 103,
108, 110, 111, 115, 117, 118,
119, 127–9, 136, 145, 146,
151, 156, 161, 162, 169, 172,
173, 175, 178, 180, 183,
188–90, 195, 196, 200, 208,
213, 219, 224, 225
ideology of negritude, 188, 190
Ifa divination, 28, 29, 81–3
Ife Bronze Head, 28
Igreja de Nossa Senhora da
Conceição, 56
Igreja do Bonfim, 55, 56
igunuka, 5
ijexá, 22, 30, 61, 111, 120,
122–4, 128, 152, 154, 159,
161, 162
Ilê Aiyê
administrative assistant, 205
administrative style, 189
as African embassy, 83
archival memory, 199
archives of, 213–14
Candomblé connections, 19, 30,
49, 50, 56, 86, 99–100, 122,
140–1, 143, 148, 152, 159,
161–2, 167, 172, 213
CD recordings, 151
charter schools, 189
collaboration, 192–3
commercialization, 190
(see also Ilê Aiyê: resistance to
commercialization)
communications, 191–2
community engagement, 186
community reactions to, 217–21
confrontational, 30, 144
contibutor to local economy,
217–19
contradictions within Ilê Aiyê,
3, 24, 34, 50, 85–6, 137, 157,
202–3
co-optation by the state, 18, 24, 25
corruption (charges of), 16, 24, 46,
78, 86, 137, 194, 195, 196, 201,
202, 218, 220, 221
corruption (resistance to), 3, 201
cultural politics, 191
date of founding, 142
defined by racial ideology, 195
directors, 99, 185
education, 19–20, 137, 218–20
educational level of members, 187,
193, 208, 212
employee evaluation, 192
employs 200+ people, 138
empowerment, 187, 191
finances, 47, 55, 137, 145, 146,
148–9, 181, 186, 192, 226
financial planning, 196
fundraising, 46, 47, 187, 192, 193,
196
gatekeepers, 214–15
gender inequality, 190
global phenomenon, 21
globalization, 196
gratuities, 81, 85, 137, 194, 203,
220–1, 225
growing pains, 186
headquarters, 27, 28, 53, 192, 194,
210
historical eras, 86
ideological rigidity and commitment,
18, 24, 30, 189, 190
inefficiency, 192
infrastructure inadequacies, 194
international performances, 47, 158
key areas for improvement, 188
key conclusions about organization,
187
legacy, 198, 223, 224
logo, 29, 83
management loyalty, 197
managerial shortcomings, 191, 196
marketing, 18, 190, 196
matriarchal structure, 22
meaning of name, xiii, xix, 31, 55
microcultural industry, xvii
278 INDEX
Ilê Aiyê—Continued
as negrologue, 32
nepotism, 199
nonprofit, 147, 196
number of yearly participants, 31, 42
organization, 30, 147–8, 185 ff.
origins, 32 ff.
passivity of, 196
photo of directors, 185
political agenda, 17, 19
political participation, 19, 186,
191, 197–8, 226, 228
political statements, 213
pressure to compromise, 196, 225
professionalization, 192
rehearsals, 2, 20, 55, 141, 146,
158, 162–4, 175, 185, 196, 219
rejection of whites, 16, 19, 30,
33–5, 47–8, 140, 147, 153, 156,
160, 176, 232n. 6
relationship to MNU, 36–40, 140
relationship to the state, 23–4,
146, 225, 226
resistance to change, 134
resistance to commercialization,
187, 189
resistance to domination, 188
scholarship on, 21
secrecy, 119, 145, 188, 190, 195,
203, 221–2, 225–6
self-discovery aided by, 204–6
social activism, 186
special events (see Black Mother’s
Day, Black Music Festival,
Ebony Goddess, Festival Erê,
Lavagem do Bonfim, Night of
Black Beauty, Noite de Wajeun,
Novembro Azeviche, Week of the
Black Mother)
strategic planning, 189, 196
teachers, 208–11
traditional, 14, 24, 42, 73, 76, 134,
136, 145, 171–2
transparency (see secrecy)
as a university, 204
values, 67, 113, 145, 155, 158, 200,
246n. 3
white parade subgroup of, 190
workers, 211
Ilê Aiyê 2010 (album), xxvii
Ilê Aiyê: 25 Anos (album), xxvii, 237n.
5, 238n. 26, 238n. 32
Ilê Axé Jitolu (Candomblé temple),
xix, xxvi, 22, 49, 51–3, 62–5, 99,
128, 139, 168, 169, 199, 206,
236n. 46
Theme of 2014 Carnival, 88, 106,
107
Ilê Axé Oyá (Candomblé temple),
232n. 9
insiders/outsiders, ix, xvi, xvii, 119,
186
Interministerial Group for the
Valorization of the Black
Population, 135
internships, xvi
Irmandade de Boa Morte (Sisterhood
of Good Death), 86
iro (garment), 81
Isis and Osiris, 21
Islam, 7, 213, 232n. 8
Italy, 47
Itaparica, 56
Itapuã, 232n. 8
Itaú (bank), 225
iyalorixá, 49, 51, 61, 99, 127, 199,
236n. 46
Jackson, Jesse, 129, 192
Jackson, Michael, 43, 119
Jackson Five, the, 14
Jailson, 34, 58, 99, 174
Jamaica, 234n. 21
Jamaica, Beto, 158, 183
Japan, 47
Jesus Christ, 56
Jhô, Negra, 231n. 2
Johnson, Randal, 237n. 11, 240n. 26,
241n. 9, 244n. 14, 246n. 15,
247n. 16
INDEX 279
Jones, Omi Osun Joni, xi
Jorge, João (founder of Carnival
group Olodum), 39, 134, 204
Jouvert, 9
Junkanoo (Bahamian Carnival), 8–9
justice, 19, 57, 59, 71, 77, 113, 196,
213. See also social justice
Kapferer, Bruce, 236n. 42
Kasai (Congo), 92
Kehinde (eldest son of Vovô), 143,
159
Kennedy, James H., 233n. 11
kente cloth, 82
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 105
Kinser, Samuel, 8
Kraay, Hendrik, 240n. 25, 244n. 14
Krippner, Stanley, 246n. 14
Lacerda Elevator, xviii
Lagos, Nigeria, x, 5, 90
Lake Victoria, 90
Lawal, Babatunde, 234n. 20
Lazzo, 158
Legum, Colin, 241n. 4
Lene, Luz, 167
liberation, 5, 8, 25, 33, 52, 81, 125,
152, 169, 201, 223, 227, 232n. 4.
See also freedom
liberation theology, 127
Liberdade. See Curuzu-Liberdade
Lili, 99, 213
Lima, Alberto, 51
Lima, Carlos, 176
Lima, Cassiano Manuel, 62, 63
Lima, Dete (daughter of Mãe Hilda;
stylist and designer), 62, 99, 147,
159, 231n. 2
Lima, Geraldo do Rosário, 45, 67,
175
Lima, Valéria, 52, 239n. 4
Lima e Silva Avenue, 20, 52
Lio, 99
Liverpool, Hollis, 234n. 23, 235n. 25
London, 6, 8, 229, 234n. 18
Lopes, Amilton, 166
Lou, Fannie, 105
Lyndsay, Arto, 159
Macalé, 34, 99, 121, 183, 189, 197,
199, 200
Macêdo, Osmar Alvares, 2, 10, 41,
42, 223, 231n. 3
maculelê, 15, 226, 250n. 4
Macumba, 170
Mãe Hilda (Vovô’s mother), xiii, xxv,
xxvi, 20, 30, 31, 41, chapter 3
(passim), 50, 53, 87, 88, 102,
103, 105, 107, 126, 134–6,
140–3, 148, 149, 169, 174, 189,
199, 206, 214, 224, 236n. 46
Mãe Hilda School, 19, 31, 50, 52, 55,
60, 64, 65, 136, 199, 208, 209.
See also Ilê Aiyê: education
Mãe Tança, 60, 62
mãe-de-santo, 127, 170
Magalhães, Antônio Carlos, 18, 41,
129, 224
Mahin, Luiza, 206
Malcolm X, 105
Malê Debalê (Carnival group), 3, 30,
70, 202
Maleiro, Nelson, 102
Mali, 82, 87, 97
Mama Africa, 178–9
Manchester, 12
Mande (people), 90
Mandela, Nelson, 52, 135
Maneiro, Jucka, 61
Mangueira (Carnival group), 164
manicure, 219
Maranhão, 47, 87
Maravilha, César, 100
Mardi Gras, 8, 235n. 28, 235n. 29
marginalized populations, 1, 4, 8,
11–13, 15, 22, 44, 59, 68
(Afro-Brazilian women), 71,
84 (Ilê Aiyê), 110, 125, 144,
172, 178, 181, 225, 226,
232n. 5
280 INDEX
market forces, 30, 107, 153, 183, 225
marketing, 18, 25, 47, 48, 83, 113,
139, 147, 153, 188–90, 196,
207, 225
Marley, Bob, 16, 195, 232n. 7
Martinique, 47, 76
Martins-Costa, Ana Luiza, 76,
241n. 1
mas (masquerading groups), 9
masking (obscuring), 40, 203, 218,
221, 224
masking (tradition), 1, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12,
40, 157, 188, 221
masking traditions in Lagos
(Bumba-Meu-Boi, Carreta,
Eyo, Oloolu), x
masks, 6, 65, 92, 95, 104
masquerade, 5–7, 9, 12, 56,
chapter 5, 89
Maslow, Abraham, 146, 194, 228
matrifocality, 71
Mauldin, Barbara, 235n. 24,
235n. 27–8
Mbiti, John, 54, 239n. 5
McAlister, Elizabeth, 7, 235n. 24
McGowan, Chris, 235n. 34
Mello, Collor de, 88
Melo do Banzu (Carnival group),
232n. 8
Menezes, Margareth, 2, 47, 66,
129, 146, 154, 183, 231n. 2,
239n. 35
Menezzes, Geruse, 190–1
Meninos do Pelô, 159
Mercury, Daniela, 2, 43, 47, 125,
129, 146, 154, 159, 171, 183,
231, 238n. 25, 239n. 35
Miami, FL, 4, 234n. 21
Middle Passage, 6, 12, 152, 227
Miltão, 45
Minas Gerais, 20, 47, 88, 189, 229
Minority Rights Group, 233n. 12
Miro, 100
miscegenation, 13, 17
mission schools, x
MNU. See Unified Black Movement
modernity, 38, 126, 143, 145, 158,
171
Monomotapa empire, 93
Moraes-Liu, Carolina, 110, 119,
243n. 11, 244n. 13
Moreira, Juliano, 102
Moreira, Morais, 21
Morris, Pam, 235, n. 35
Morte, Marcos Boa, 165
Mossi (people), 90, 94
Mount Leketi (Congo), 177
Movimento Negro Unificado.
See Unified Black Movement
Mozambique, 88, 93
Muçulmano, Master, 159
Mudimbe, V. Y., 77, 241n. 5
murals, 93
Musée Royal de l’Afrique Centrale, 92
museum, 41, 77, 92, 108, 225–6,
228, 237n. 4
musicians, 10, 19, 20, 41, 108, 143,
154, 158, 159, 162–4, 163,
183, 196, 203, 210–12, 215–17,
219, 221
Muzenza (Carnival group), x, 3, 18,
30, 52, 112, 232n. 7
Na’Allah, Abdul-Rasheed, 234n. 19
Nanã, 51
narcissism, 138
Nascimento, Abdias do, also Abdias
Nascimento, 50, 57, 67, 102,
103, 142
Nascimento, Adolfo, 2, 10, 223,
231n. 3, 236n. 1
Nascimento, Jó, 167
Nascimento, Jussara Rocha, 242n. 11
Nascimento, Maria Beatriz, 102
Nascimento, Milton, 183, 189,
248n. 3
Nascimento, Raimundo, xi
Nass Marrakech, 159
Natividade, Paulo (poet), 59, 168
Ndebele (people), 93, 94
INDEX 281
Nefertiti, 107
Negritude, 15, 21, 24, 32, 42, 46, 51,
52, 65, 66, 68, 70, 75–8, 80, 85,
86, 107, 108, 110, 113, 115, 169,
172, 179, 188, 190, 211, 229
Neto, Paulo de Carvalho, 233n. 11
Neves, Edmilson Lopes da, 198
Neves, Tancredo, 88, 96
New Orleans, LA, 4, 5, 8, 12, 192,
229, 234n. 21, 235n. 28
New Orleans Jazz Festival, 192
New York City, 6, 9, 76, 229, 234n. 21
NGOs, xii, 193, 198, 200, 208
Nice (France), 234n. 21
Nigeria, x, 2, 5, 7, 56, 80, 80–3,
87, 90, 97, 110, 132, 234n. 19,
237n. 4
Ninha, 122, 159
Noite da Beleza Negra, xxvi, 31, 44,
67, 110–12, 114, 115, 117, 118,
123, 124, 129
Noite de Wajeun, 31, 142, 146
Notting Hill, 8, 12, 234n. 21
Novembro Azeviche, 129, 142, 146
Novembro Azeviche (Jet-Black
November), 129, 142, 146, 162
Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey, 238n. 34
numerology, 28–9
Nunley, John, 234n. 24, 235n. 32
Nydam, Arlen, xii
O Canto da Cidade (album), 43
O Clarim d’Alvorada (Carnival
group), 36
Obafemi Awolowo University, x
Obaluaiyê (also spelled Obaluaye,
Obaluayê , and Obaluaê ), 15
(“Omolu”), 51, 59, 61–3, 139,
240n. 21 (“Sopona”), 243n. 30
(“Sànpo nná”)
Obama, Barack, 84, 85, 149
Obatala, 25, 135, 136, 139, 149, 179,
180, 233n. 13, 245n. 10.
See also Oxalá
objectification of blackness, 170
objectification of women, 188
Odebrecht Foundation, 137, 192
Oduduwa, 180
Ogum, 51, 63
Ogun, 57
Ojo-Ade, Femi, 80, 241n. 10, 242n. 15
Okanbi (Carnival group), 245n. 7
Oliveira, Gelton de, 210, 211
Olodum (Carnival group), x, xii, xiv,
xvi, 2, 3, 10, 16–18, 25, 30,
39–41, 43, 45, 47, 68, 79, 89,
90, 112, 114, 119, 124, 134,
143, 146, 153, 155, 159, 177,
189, 190, 202, 204, 224, 225,
232n. 5, 244n. 11, 245n. 7
Olodumaré, 180
Olorum Baba Mi (Carnival group),
245n. 7
Olympic Games, 228
Omari, Mikelle Smith, 244n. 15
Omolu. See Obaluaiyê
Ona�ilê, Graça, 159, 164, 177, 181,
231n. 2
Onawale, Landê, 195
opaxorô (metal staff), 107, 243n. 29
oppression, 1, 16, 25, 30, 31, 34–8,
40, 44, 59, 71, 73, 89, 111, 125,
141, 149, 155, 161, 170–2, 175,
179, 188, 189, 195, 229, 234n.
23, 248n. 2
orality, 22, 23, 57, 128, 148, 152,
155, 183
Ordep, 57
oriki, xix, 59, 61, 113, 136
Orisanla. See Oxalá
orixá, 54, 56, 62, 78, 117, 122, 135,
139, 143, 161, 174, 175
Orunmila, 83
Carnival group, 134, 245n. 7
Osmar. See Macêdo, Osmar Alvares
Osvaldo, 100
Ottawa (Canada), 234n. 21
Oxalá, 29, 49, 56, 63, 135, 139,
179, 239n. 2, 243n. 29.
See also Obatala
282 INDEX
Oxossi, 51, 63
Oxum, 2, 15, 51, 59, 61–3, 117,
231n. 2, 243n. 9
Oxumare, 63, 241n. 33
pai-de-santo, 170
Paim, Joseane, xi, 218
Paim, Mário, 159
Paim, Marivaldo, 159
Paixão, Cyntia (Ebony Goddess
2014), xiv
Pandegas d’África (Carnival group),
75, 101
Pandeiro, Jackson do, 102
paradox, 46, 168, 169
Paris, France, 76, 229, 233n. 13
Pastinha, Mestre, 102
Pelourinho (district of Salvador), 2,
18, 40, 42, 52, 55, 86, 98, 127,
142, 179, 224, 225, 227, 232n. 4,
232n. 9
Pemberton, John III, 242n. 11
Pentecostal Christians, 7
percussion. See drums, drumming
perfume, 49
Pernambuco, 20, 47, 88, 233n. 13
Peru, 4
Pescatello, Ann M., 233n. 11
Pessanha, Ricardo, 235n. 34
Petrobrás (company), 134, 137,
192, 225
petroleum industry, 134, 135
Peuhl (people), 90
Pinho, Patrícia de Santana, 124, 125,
178, 179, 244n. 15, 247n. 29
Piquet, Daniel, 233n. 11
Pirajá (neighborhood), 232n. 9
Pires, Constância da Rocha.
See Mãe Tança
Pita, Juci, 182
Pitanga, Antônio (actor), 170,
247n. 16
Pitta, Alberto, 61
Plácido, Antonio D., 233n. 11
plastic surgery, 125
Poesia, Adailton, 43, 60, 181, 182
poetry, 29, 51, 59–62, 65, 67, 71, 77,
111, 133, 168–9
police, 8, 10, 19, 21, 22, 30, 36, 37,
42, 75, 76, 84, 122, 125, 132,
133, 144, 199, 232n. 6, 244n. 14,
248n. 9
police brutality, 8, 10, 22, 30, 37, 38,
76, 144, 227, 232n. 6
political agendas, 3, 17, 19, 22, 134,
225
Polygram (record label), 153
popcorn, 49, 56, 136
Pope, the, 13
Popó, 99
Porto da Pedra (samba school), 23
Portuguese, the, 52, 93, 142
Portuguese aggression/domination,
57, 93
Portuguese colonialism, 95, 126
Portuguese language, 121, 132, 174,
186, 187, 192, 233n. 11, 244n. 11
postcolonialism, 13
postmodernism, 30, 138, 155, 246n. 13
posture(s), 14, 22, 24, 29, 30, 34,
42, 48, 68, 78, 80, 98, 107, 111,
116, 121, 144, 162, 191, 226
pragmatism, 10, 37, 46, 54, 78, 107,
136, 146, 161, 162, 189, 198,
224, 226
Prego, Master, 159
pride, 9, 12, 27, 30, 31, 34, 35, 41,
43, 64, 65, 70, 73, 74, 75, 76,
79, 81, 82, 84, 113, 115, 122,
126, 137, 145, 160, 162, 179,
191, 200, 203
African, 56, 76, 85, 87, 132, 161,
167, 172, 173, 180, 182, 194
Afro-Brazilian, 65, 69, 96, 172,
232n. 5
ancestral, xvi, 68
black, ix, xiii, xiv, xxv–xxvii, 15, 16,
18, 23, 27, 30, 52, 65, 75, 99,
104, 108, 110, 111, 115, 118,
146, 152, 162, 168, 176–8, 200,
203, 209, 211, 223, 227, 229
of the community, xxvi, 24, 29, 34
INDEX 283
cultural, 104, 145
in Ilê Aiyê, 20, 113, 203, 217, 220
self-pride, 27
of women, 109, 110, 118
Puerto Rico, 4
Purdy, Kristin, xii
Querino, Manuel, 22, 102, 241n. 7
questionnaire, 185 ff.
quilobolagem, 23
Quilombhoje, 133
Quilombo (film), 200
Quilombo do Kabula, 100
Quilombo dos Palmares, 51, 57, 59,
100, 167
Quilombo Rio das Rãs, 100
quilombos (maroon settlements),
87, 133
Quinta das Beatas (Candomblé
temple), 59
Quintal, Fundo de, 154
race, 4, 16, 33, 35, 38, 39, 45, 67,
113, 115, 118, 121, 145, 160,
162, 168, 170, 175, 176,
179–80, 201, 223, 226
racial democracy, 23, 30, 33, 34,
38–40, 46, 65, 68, 103, 110,
144, 171, 180, 182, 228,
242n. 15
racial discrimination, 1, 8, 14, 15, 29,
30, 32, 36, 41, 42, 47, 65, 68,
71, 76, 77, 84–6, 98, 100, 108,
121, 125, 132, 136, 138, 144,
161, 227, 229, 232n. 5, 232n. 6
racial relations, 3, 33–5, 39–40, 74,
76, 80, 116, 152, 169, 172, 195,
198, 223
racism, reverse racism, 2, 10, 13,
15–17, 21, 23, 24, 26, chapter 2
(passim), 58, 73, 74, 76, 89, 99,
112, 118, 133, 135, 136, 145,
146, 169, 176, 180, 181, 216,
226–9
radiology, 191
Rafael, 159
raffia cloth, 82
Rainha do Carnaval (Carnival
Queen contest), 68, 113
Rainha do Fantoche da Euterpe (Puppet
Queen contest), 68, 113
Ramos, Alberto Guerreiro, 22
Ramos, Arthur, 22
rape, 71, 111
Ratner, Carl, 18
Rebouças, André, 102
Recife, 229
Reco, Paulinho do, 100, 113, 175
Refavela (album), 171
reggae, 9, 22, 86, 89, 232n. 7
Rei, Chico, 23
Reis, Aline Cristina Pereira, xi, 209,
211
Reis do Congo (Carnival group), 79,
233n. 13
Reizinho, 159, 164, 180, 181
religiosity, 61, 69, 78, 120, 164, 171,
172
Reluzente, Valfredo, 180
repeniques/repiques (drums), 176, 177
representation
of Africa, 21, 23, 85
of Afro-Brazilian history, 103
of Carnival, 1
carnivalesque, 126
gender, 201
of Ilê Aiyê, 127
musical, 171, 176
mythical, 14
political, 51, 176, 178
as role model, 68
symbolic, 79
Revolta da Chibata (1910), 99, 142
Revolta dos Búzios (1798), 99, 180
Rio de Janeiro, 16, 17, 23, 67, 101,
142, 162, 164, 176, 223, 228,
229, 233n. 13
Rio Grande do Sul, 20, 229
Risério, Antônio, 11, 14–16, 30,
33–7, 39, 40, 46, 171, 235n. 34,
237n. 10–12, 238n. 14, 238n. 19,
238n. 34, 239n. 8
284 INDEX
Roberto, Sérgio (cousin of Vovô), 68,
99, 113
Rodrigues, Nina, 79, 241n. 8
Rome, 160
“Black Rome,” 22, 51
Romo, Anadelia A., 225, 226,
243n. 32, 244n. 15
roots, 12, 13, 16, 19, 52, 54, 56, 61,
62, 65, 87, 102, 117, 119, 127,
135, 138, 152, 160, 161, 168,
199, 224, 234n. 16
roots samba, 30
Ross, Doran H., 242n. 11
Rousseff, Dilma, 131
royalty, 23, 59, 126, 173
Rwanda, 87, 90, 92, 93, 97
Sá, Sandra de, 183
Sacramento, Benta Maria do
(mother of Mãe Hilda), 62
sacrifice (hardship), 19, 31, 45, 52,
58, 59, 72, 100, 112, 126, 139,
142, 147, 148, 174, 180
sacrifice (ritual), 2, 11, 21, 28, 29,
56–9, 126
Salgueiro (samba school), 23
Salvador Negro Amor, 159
Samba, Neguinho do, 16, 159, 177,
232n. 5
samba-reggae, 10, 16, 43, 47, 89, 154,
155, 159, 176, 177, 183, 232n. 5
Sambodromo, 223
Sampaio, Teodoro, 102
San Francisco (CA), 4, 234n. 21
Sandoval, 61
Sandra, 100
Sands, Rosita M., 235n. 32
Sangalo, Ivete, 2, 47, 183, 231n. 2,
239n. 35
Sànpo nná. See Obaluaiyê
Santana, Arany, 110, 119–22, 124, 139
Santana, Chico, 182
Santana, Rosane, 140, 239n. 1, 245n. 4,
246n. 17
Santanna, Marilda, 231n. 2, 239n. 35
Santiago, Silviano, 171, 247n. 20
Santos, Ademilton Jesus, xi, 215
Santos, Ana Amélia Dias, xi, 216
Santos, Antônio Carlos dos.
See Vovô
Santos, Antônio Carlos Taiwo Boa
Morte dos. See Taiwo
Santos, Apolônio dos.
See Apolônio de Jesus
Santos, Hilda Dias dos.
See Mãe Hilda
Santos, Hildelice Benta dos, 62, 199,
236n. 46
Santos, Hildelita dos, 62
Santos, Hildemaria dos, 62
Santos, Jacilda Trindade Teles dos,
204, 206
Santos, José Carlos dos. See Bamba
Santos, Jurim Assunção dos, 218
Santos, Maria Luísa Passos dos, 209,
211
Santos, Vivaldo dos, 62, 99, 147
Santos, Waldemar Benvindo dos
(husband of Mãe Hilda), 62, 63
Santos, Wilson Batista. See Macalé
São Paulo, 67, 132, 133, 164, 176,
228, 229
Sarney, José, 88
sàsàrà (musical instrument), 107,
243n. 30
Scher, Philip W., 7, 235n. 25, 235n. 33
Schouten, Peer, 246n. 2
Scott, James C., 24–6, 155, 157,
158, 226, 236n. 52, 246n. 2,
248n. 2
Sebe, José Carlos, 20, 21
secret societies, 128
sekere (musical instrument), 93
Semana da Mãe Preta, 70, 110, 129,
142
Senac, Master, 159
Senegal, 76, 87, 95–7, 159
Senghor, Léopold Sédar, 76
Senufo (people), 91
Serra, Olímpio, 57
Serra da Barriga (Alagoas), 57, 63, 142
sexual intercourse, 21
INDEX 285
sexuality/sexualization, 3, 34, 36, 71,
118, 125, 126, 160, 227
Shona (people), 93
Silva, Antônio Vieira da, x
Silva, Ardubor D., xi, 215
Silva, Benedita da, 102, 103, 181, 182
Silva, Jônatas Conceição da, 32, 33,
97, 100, 169, 237n. 9, 242n. 22,
243n. 26
Silva, Lula da (president of Brazil),
39, 96, 101, 129, 140, 141
Silva, Rita de Cassia Maia da, 69,
240n. 29
Silva, Vinícius Silva da, xi, 215
Simão, Moisés e, 176, 177
Simon, Paul, 16, 43, 119
Sina, Milton do, 166
Siqueira, Maria de Lourdes, 103, 183,
243n. 25–6
Skol (beer), 225
slavery, 7, 9, 23, 25, 27, 28, 32, 34,
35, 52, 57, 58, 59, 62, 71–7, 85,
87, 89, 90, 95, 97, 111, 118,
126, 144, 152, 165, 173, 176,
177, 227, 237n. 2
Smith, Michelle, xii
soccer, 136, 146, 170, 205, 206,
213, 228
social justice, ix, 36, 78.
See also justice
Sociedade Protectores dos
Desvalidos, 100
Sodré, Jaime, 183
sokoto (garment), 81
solidarity, xxi, xxvii, 15, 36, 45, 80,
137, 145, 159, 160, 166, 167,
239n. 2
Sony (record label), 153
Sopona. See Obaluaiyê
soul music, 14, 22
Sousa, Walter Altino de, Jr., 21, 23,
24, 46, 236n. 51, 238n. 33,
246n. 19
South Africa, 146, 235n. 29
South America, 47
Souza, Erval Soares, 219
Souza, Florentina da Silva, 21, 22,
236n. 50
Soviet Union, 155
Soyinka, Wole, 245n. 17
Spain, 47, 166
Speed, Will, xii
spirituality, 5, 22, 28, 49, 50, 52, 59,
62, 65, 66, 71, 82, 86, 110, 127,
128, 143, 151, 174, 179
St. Lucia, 234n. 21
Stalinist regime, 13
Stam, Robert, 14, 236n. 41
stereotypes, 8, 10, 15, 18, 31, 32, 42,
48, 68, 79, 85, 110, 118, 177, 218
Sterling, Cheryl, 188, 201, 248n. 1
Steve Biko Institute, xii
Strachan, Ian G., 9, 235n. 31
Suka, 161
surdo (drum), 81, 152, 176, 177
Switzerland, 47
syncretism, 36, 56, 176, 182
synesthesia, 176
Taiwo (son of Vovô), xi, 204–6, 214
tambores (drums), 21
Tapa (people), 5
Tatuagem, Nem (poet), 168
Tavares, Juraci, 61
Teatro Experimental do Negro, 36
Teixeira, Anísio, 135
Teixeira Mendes Street, 210
Teles, Alex Sandro, xi, 210, 211
Telles, Edward, 37, 39, 237n. 14
Tervuren (Belgium), 92
textiles, 14, 75, 76, 80, 80–3, 85–7,
89–95, 91, 93, 97–9, 101–8,
102, 106, 108, 214, 220, 224
Thompson, Peter S., 242n. 15
Tobias, 100, 147
Tokyo, 229
Toronto, 12, 229, 234n. 21
Tosh, Peter, 16
tourism, 3, 17, 23, 40, 41, 46, 55, 78,
85, 86, 118, 124, 127, 179, 196,
197, 202, 207, 224, 225, 227,
243n. 32
286 INDEX
tourism, ethnic/cultural, 16, 46
training
arts, 154, 158
Ebony Goddess competition, 122,
126, 128
job, 193
management, 204
military, 90
teachers, 64, 202
Trinidad and Tobago, 234n. 21
Trinidad Carnival, 7
trio elétrico, 2, 10, 17, 27, 42, 68,
136, 223, 231n. 3, 236n. 1
Tuareg (people), 91
Tulane University, 192
Turismo Étnico Afro, 202
Turner, Victor, 35
Tutsi (people), 90, 92
Tutu, Osei (king), 94, 173
Umbanda, 170
UNICEF, 137
Unified Black Movement (MNU), 24,
36–40, 88, 132, 140, 157, 223,
227, 237n. 13
United States, 4, 14, 20, 27, 42, 47,
84, 85, 105, 125, 139, 160, 165
University of Ife. See Obafemi
Awolowo University
University of Texas at Austin, xi, xii
Upper Volta, 87, 90, 97
Vai Levando (Carnival group), 101
Vai-Vai (Carnival group), 164
Valter, Master. See Farias, Valter
values, 83, 127, 147, 158, 161, 166,
167, 171, 204
values, aesthetic, 32, 43, 82, 115,
124
values, African, 6, 7, 15, 30, 32, 43,
56, 73, 76, 79–80, 99, 103, 110,
119, 137, 141, 143, 146, 164,
172, 174, 177
values, Afro-Brazilian, 30, 81, 116,
124, 160
values, artistic, 219
values, black, 45, 115, 149, 162, 175,
232n. 8–9
values, Candomblé, 53, 64, 66, 143,
145
values, Eurocentric, 7
values, Ilê Aiyê’s, 67, 113, 145, 155,
158, 200, 246n. 3
values, moral, 28, 195, 196
values, negritudist, 219
values, sociocultural, 21
values, traditional, 14, 73, 76
Vaz, Paulo, 104, 182
Velas (record label), 153
Veloso, Caetano, 20, 21, 41, 42–4,
66, 89, 90, 125, 129, 146, 154,
163, 171, 176, 183, 223, 229
Venezuela, 4, 233n. 11, 233n. 16
Venice, 234n. 21
Verger, Pierre, 98, 241n. 7, 243n. 24
Vienna, 160
Vila, Martinho da, 154, 159, 176,
177, 183
Vincent, Gregory, xii
violence/nonviolence, 3, 10, 27,
35–8, 75, 76, 85, 144, 157,
158, 189, 224
Visonà, Monica Blackmun, 6,
234n. 20
Vita, Alexis Brooks de, 245n. 17
Vitorinha (soccer team), 136
vocational training, 20, 53, 186, 188,
208, 210, 211, 216, 217
Vovô, 131, 144
1997 Carnival honoree, 102, 103
age, 133, 134
Candomblé devotee, 135
Carnival coordinator, 135
chapter 6 (passim)
community activism, 136
early life and education, 135
featured on 1993 textile, 105
founding Ilê Aiyê, 49
frequently interviewed, 133
general mention, 22, 31, 33, 41,
50, 52, 54, 62, 76, 99, 113,
114, 121, 122, passim
INDEX 287
his portrait hung in Ilê Aiyê HQ, 53
leadership skills/style, 135, 147
loyalties ranked, 138
maternal influence, 139
mayoral candidate, 39, 228
personal mythology, 134, 137
president of Ilê Aiyê, 30, passim
social commitment, 138
trustee and chairman of Ilê Aiyê,
135
visionary, 131, 139
visit by President Lula, 140
visited by author at home, 129
as warrior, 213
Waddle, Jesse, 9
Waldeloir, 100
warfare, 90
Warfield Center for African and
African American Studies, xi
warriors, 51, 57, 59, 90, 93, 94, 97–9,
107, 113, 135, 213
Watutsi (people), 87, 90
Weinoldt, Kirsten, 245n. 4, 246n. 11
West Africa, 10, 61, 90, 92, 177,
234n. 23
West Indian American Carnival Day
Association, 9
white privilege, 170
Woman X, xi, 220, 222
workers, 3, 16, 137, 185–7, 189, 190,
193, 194, 197, 201, 207, 211,
212, 214–17, 232n. 4
Worker’s Party, 39, 96
Xangô, 15, 63, 104–6
Xica da Silva, 23, 118, 125, 126
Yemojá (also Nana), 174
Yerba Buena, 159
Yoruba (people), 56, 82, 234n. 19,
237n. 4
Yoruba cosmology, 28, 81, 83, 84,
139, 152. See also cosmology
Yoruba culture, 28, 81, 128, 152,
179, 234n. 20
Yoruba divination, 28, 81–3, 107, 172
Yoruba language, 22, 31, 64, 81, 84,
132, 142, 159, 174, 175, 209,
245n. 7
Yoruba proverbs, 82
Zenilda, 100
Zenilton, 226
Zimbabwe, 87, 93, 94, 97
Zizi, 100
Zulu (people), 8, 104, 235n. 29
Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club, 8,
235n. 29
Zumbi dos Palmares, 23, 38, 50, 51,
55, 57, 63, 90, 96, 97, 129, 142,
167, 176, 177, 206
Songs & Poems
“A Esperança de um Povo,” 153, 179,
180
“Adeus Bye Bye,” 181, 182
“Beleza Pura,” 42–4, 171, 238n. 24
“Canto da Cor,” 174, 176, 177
“Canto Sideral,” 153
“Charme da Liberdade,” 161
“Civilização do Congo,” 174, 176, 177
“Comando Doce” (poem), 61
“Corpo Excitado,” 179
“Décima Quinta Sinfonia,” 161
“Depois que o Ilê Passar,” 161, 173
“Deusa do Ébano I,” 45, 67, 153,
161, 174, 175
“Deusa do Ébano II,” 45, 181
“É d’Oxum,” 117
“É Ela,” 61
“É Ela” (poem), 61
“Esmeraldas, Negras Histórias,” 166
“Evolução da Raça,” 179, 180,
247n. 33
“Exclusão,” 161, 181
288 INDEX
“Faraó,” 16
“Formatando a História,” 167
“Guardiã da Beleza Negra”
(poem), 61
“Heranças Bantos,” 181, 182
“Homenagem às Mães Pretas do
Brasil” (poem), 60
“Ilê Aiyê Eterno Abrigo,” 161
“Ilê de Luz,” 174, 176
“Ilê É Ímpar,” 153, 179
“Ilê Minha Paixão” (poem), 168
“Ilê Paradoxal” (poem), 169
“Ilê, um Eterno Aprendiz” (poem), 168
“Linha Imaginária,” 165–6
“Mãe Preta,” 153, 173, 174
“Mãe Preta Foi e É Ama, Mestra,
e Protetora” (poem), 71
“Majestade África,” 104
“Maravilha Negra,” 60
“Matriarca do Curuzu,” 59
“Me Leva Amor,” 181
“Meu Jeito de Ser,” 153, 179, 180
“Minha Origem,” 179, 180
“Não Me Pegue Não,” 20, 121
“Negrice Cristal,” 94, 153, 173
“Negro de Luz,” 153, 174, 176
“Negrume da Noite,” 113, 153, 174,
175
“O Canto da Cidade,” 171
“O Kilombola,” 139
“O Mais Belo dos Belos,” 43, 121,
181, 182
“Pai e Filho,” 179, 180
“Perola Negra Maior” (poem), 51
“População Magoada,” 179, 180
“Que Bloco É Esse?,” 16, 31, 42, 43,
89, 153, 156, 161, 173, 181, 183
“Quero Ver Você, Ilê Aiyê,” 90, 121
“Rituais Africanos,” 226
“Separatismo Não,” 174, 176
“Still I Rise” (poem), 111