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Introduction to BiologyChapter 1
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Science
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Science
From the word scientiaL. which means to
know
Systematic &
Comprehensive
Investigation &
Exploration of
Natures
Causes and
Effects
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A. The Nature of Science 1. Science is a way of asking about the natural world to obtain precise
answers.
2. Asking questions about nature is ancient; modern science is about2000 years old.
3. Science is separate from activities such as art and religion.
4. The Overton trial over creation science provided a definition ofscience.
a. Science is guided by natural law (physical and chemical laws that governthe state of existence)
b. Science has to be explanatory by reference to natural law.
c. Science is testable against the observable world.
d. Science conclusions are tentative; they are rarely the final word.
e. Science is falsifiable.
5. Science is neutral regarding religion and does not favor one religiousposition over another.
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BIOLOGY
From the Greek words, bios: life and logos: to
study
the science of life
the study of living things
It deals with the investigation of the origin,history, structure, function, identification,classification, distribution, development,inheritance, and significance of living things aswell as their relationships and interaction withthe environment.
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BOTANY ZOOLOGY
Pure Botany
Applied Botany
Pomology
Floriculture
Structural Zoology
Developmental Zoology
Functional Zoology
Systematic Zoology
Distribution Zoology
Historical Zoology
Economic Zoology
Medical Zoology
MICROBIOLOGY
BIOLOGY
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Applied Botany Pomology OlericulturePure Botany
Morphology
Gross Morphology
Anatomy
Histology
Cytology
Embryology
Systematic Botany
Phytogeography
Physiology
Taxonomy
Paleobotany
Agriculture
Agronomy
Pathology
Genetics
Pharmacognosy
Horticulture
Landscape Architecture
Phycology
Mycology
Bacteriology
Forestry
Ecology
BOTANY
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3. Systematic Zoology 4.Functional Zoology 7.Medical Zoology1. Structural Zoology
Anatomy
Histology
Cytology
Protozoology
Conchology
Malacology
Icthyology
Herpetology
Ornithology
Mammalogy
Entomology
2. Developmental Zoology
Embryology
Ontogeny
Genetics
Animal Physiology
Animal Behavior
5. Historical Zoology
Paleontology
Phylogeny
Evolution
6. Distribution Zoology
8. Economic
Zoology
Parasitology
Pathology
Zoogeography
Ecology
Morphology
ZOOLOGY
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History of Biology
Primitive Period
- characterized by uncritical accumulation ofinformation mainly derived from the practicalnecessities of obtaining food, materials forclothing and shelter, substances to cure ailmentsand necessary information about the humanbody.
- accumulation of knowledge was notrecorded
- information was verbally passed on to thenext generation
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Classical Period
a.) Egyptians and Babylonians had already
wrote down basic knowledge to be passed on
to those who followed after.
b.) Evidences on animal raising and agriculture
(as early as 8500 B.C.) were found in
Mesopotamia
c.) Greeks had great curiosity about the
natural phenomena and an ability to organize
knowledge and record it.
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Greek Scientists
a.) Anaximander, a Greek philosopher who
lived from 611 to 546 BC, is credited with the
first written work on natural science, aclassical poem entitled On Nature. In this
poem, he presented what may be the first
written theory ofevolution.
b.) Hippocrates (400 to 300 BC) Father of
Medicine; stated that diseases have natural
causes and that the body has the power to
repair itself
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c.) Aristotle (343 to 322 BC) considered as
the Father of Biology; proposed the first
classification scheme, the Scala naturae (L.
scale of nature); coined the words pangenes,particles representative of the various organs,
and homunculus, a preformed, tiny human
that just grew in the mother
d.) Theophrastus pupil of Aristotle, who
carried on pioneer studies on nature of plants
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e.) Galen (131 to 210 AD) - Greek physician,
who began to study human anatomy and
carried out the 1st physiological experiment in
animals; he is consideredLast Great Biologist
ofAntiquity
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Dark Ages (12th14th Centuries)
- a biological darkness enveloped all Europe;downward trend in scientific inquiry and nobiologist made critical observations.
Reasons:
1. most common people were illiterate
2. books were expensive
3. People were busy fighting a series of wars fromthe Crusades to Mongol invasions.
4. recurrent epidemics of Black Death (BubonicPlague) swept over Europe which killed about athird of the population
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RENAISSANCE
a.)Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642), an Italian astronomer and
physicist, who demonstrated the truth of the Copernican
theory with the telescope.
b.) Sir Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727), an English
mathematician and philosopher; he formulated laws of
gravity governing the motion of the planets
c.)Leonardo Da Vinci andMichaelangelo ( Italian artists)
made accurate studies in plants, animals and human
anatomy.
d.)Andreas Vesalius published his bookThe Structure of
the HumanBody
e.)William Harvey described the blood circulation in man
which contributed to physiology
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Modern Era
17TH Century
- observations were being made with the first,
primitive microscopes. These often had highly-
polished grains of sand as lenses.
a.) Robert Hooke In 1665, he established
the concept of Modern Cell Theory (all living
things are made up of cells; cell = room,
cubicle)
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b.) Anton van Leeuwenhoek
the first person to observe sperm cells
and with his very primitive microscope
Preformationist
Miniature adultin the sperm
(Leeuwenhoek)
Miniature adultin the egg
(de Graaf)
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c.) Matthias Schleiden botanist; plants are
made up of cells
d.) Theodore Schwann zoologist; animals
are composed of cellse.) Francesco Redi (1668) and Lazarro
Spallanzani (1765 - 1767) experimentally
disproved the spontaneous origin of life from
nonliving matter
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18th Century
a.) Karl von Linn or Carolus Linnaeus L. (1707 -
1778) known as the Father of Taxonomy ;
established the system of binomial nomenclature in
which all living things are arranged by genera and
species; In 1753, Linnaeus wrote Species Plantarum,
and in 1758, Systema NaturaeKingdom
Phylum (pl.phyla)
Class
Order
Family
Genus (pl.genera)
Species
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Scientific Names
Genus + species
Handwritten: Genus species
Computerized: Genus species
Example:
Periplaneta americana
Gallus gallus
Allium cepa
19th Century
a.) Jean Baptiste Lamarck in 1802 or 1809,
he proposed the Theory of Evolution; His main
points were:
evolution or change within a species is driven by
an innate, inner striving toward greater
perfection,
use or disuse of various organs made them larger
or smaller, accordingly, and
these acquired traits could be inherited or passed
on to offspring (inheritance of acquired traits).
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b.) Charles Darwin in 1859, he publ ished The Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of
Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, more commonly
known as The Origin of Species. In this landmark book, he
made four main points:
individuals, even siblings, in a population vary (there is
variation),
these variations canbe passedto offspring (are inherited)
(from Malthus) more offspring are produced than the
environment can support, so there is competition for
resources,
those individuals whose characteristics make them best suited
to the environment live and reproduce and have more
offspring (survival of the fittest).
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d.) Louis Pasteur known as the Father of
Modern Microbiology; in 1864, he was able
to disprove spontaneous generation or the
abiogenesis theory
e.) Gregor Mendel - an Austrian monk who is
known asthe Father of ModernGenetics
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20th Century
a.) Ernst Haeckel stated that an organism
was the product of the interaction of its
environment with hereditary factorsb.)H.E. Cowla, F.E. Clemens, andV.E. Shelford
put ecology on a modern basis; generalized
that all organisms living in a given area are
closely interdependent with each other and
with the environment.
c.) Thomas Hunt Morgan developed Gene
Theory by studying fruit flies to show physical
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d.) Sir Alexander Fleming developed
penicillin
e.) James Watson (American), Francis Crick
(Englishman) andMaurice Wilkins in 1953,
they proposed the hypothetical structure ofthe DNA (one of the most important biological
discoveries)
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Scientific Method
The scientific method illustrates the way in
which science is done.
Scientific Method
This simplified
flow diagram of
the scientific
method shows
the important
components
involved in a
scientific study.
Observations
Hypothesis
Experiment/
Observations
Conclusion
Scientific
Theory
Scientific Method
First is the observation phase, where new
observations are made.
This is also the time where previous data are
examined.
Next, a hypothesis is formulated to attempt to
explain the available data and observations.
A hypothesis must be testable!!!
Scientific Method
The hypothesis is then tested through a seriesof experiments and/or observations.
These experiments and observations must berepeatable!
The factual information resulting from theseexperiments and observations are called data.
An important part of an experiment is thecontrol, which is a replicate set up exactly like theexperiment, except it does not have the factorbeing tested.
Scientific Method
Scientists can then draw a conclusion based
on the data.
The conclusion may involve accepting or rejecting
the initial hypothesis.
Further experiments may require an adjustment
to the conclusions.
Hypotheses are said to be supported, but not proven.
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Scientific Method
New hypotheses are generated from the
conclusions, and the process starts again. A theory results when a group of related
hypotheses are supported by manyexperiments and observations.
Theories are the ideas that scientists are MOSTSURE OF!
Theory of relativity
Theory of evolution
Scientific Method
The previous modelis very simplified andthe result is toolinear.
The activity model
for the process ofscientific inquiryshows the morecomplex interactionsthat are reallyinvolved.
Harwood, W. S. 2004. A new Model for Inquiry: is the Scientific Method Dead?
Journal of College Science Teaching. 33(7): 29-33.
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Properties of Life
General Properties of Living Systems
Chemical Uniqueness:
Living systems demonstrate a unique andcomplex molecular organization
Small molecules are assembled intomacromolecules:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins4. Nucleic Acids
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Carbohydrates
Serve as animmediate
source of energy
Composed ofcarbon, hydrogen
and oxygen in1:2:1 ratio
formstructural
component ofcell
simplest and mostabundant, being theprimary products of
photosynthesis. Composed ofC, H and O
Serve asinsulator
Serve as rawmaterials for
hormone
Source ofstored formof energy
Component ofthe cell
membrane
Lipids
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Source ofenergy
Serve fortransport
Act asenzymes
Composed of
C, H, O, N, S
Act ashormone
Proteins
Repair of
worn out cells
Serve formovement
Nucleic Acids
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DNA molecule General Properties of Living Systems
Complexity and Hierarchical Organization:Living systems demonstrate a unique and complex hierarchical organization
In living systems there exists a hierarchy oflevels that includes:
MacromoleculesCells
TissuesOrgans
Organ SystemsOrganism
PopulationCommunity
Ecosystem1-48
General Properties of Living Systems
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Reproduction:
Liv ing systems canreproduce themselves At each level of the
biological hierarchy livingforms reproduce togenerate others likethemselves:
Genesreplicate toproduce new genes.
Cellsdivide producingnew cells.
Organismsreproduce,sexually or asexually, to
produce new organisms
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Reproduction
Asexual
B_ _ _ _ _ _: outgrowth of
the parent separates toform a new individual
B_ _ _ _ _ F _ _ _ _ _ _:
the parent cel ls splits two
form two identical daughter
cells
Sexual
Requires the union of
sperm and egg
Leads to the formation
of zygote which will
undergo repetitive
division
General Properties of Living Systems
Possession of a Genetic Program:
A genetic program provides fidelity of
inheritance
DNA: Long, linear, chain of nucleotides containinggenetic information
Sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA determinesthe order of amino acids in proteins
Genetic Code: correspondence between basesequences in DNA and the sequence of aminoacids in a protein
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General Properties of Living Systems
Metabolism:
Living organisms maintain themselves by
acquiring nutrients from their environments
Metabolic processes include:
Digestion
Energy production (Respiration)
Synthesis of required molecules and structures
by organisms
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General Properties of Living Systems
Metabolism is often viewed as an interaction
of destructive (catabolic) and constructive
(anabolic) reactions
The most fundamental anabolic and catabolic
chemical processes used by living systems
arose early in the evolutionary history of life
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General Properties of Living Systems
Development:
All organisms pass through a characteristic
life cycle
Development describes the characteristic changes
that an organism undergoes from its origin to its
final adult form
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General Properties of Living Systems
Growth
Accretion
Intussusception
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PL NTS N M LS
INDETERMINATE/
UNLIMITED DETERMINATE/LIMITED
General Properties of Living Systems
Environmental Interaction:
All animals interact with their environments
Ecology: The study of organismal interaction with
an environment
Irritability: All organisms respond to
environmental stimuli
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General Properties of Living Systems
Movement:
Living systems and their parts show precise
and controlled movements arising from withinthe system
Living systems extract energy from theirenvironments permitting the initiation ofcontrolled movements
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General Properties of Living Systems
Movements at the cellular level are requiredfor:
ReproductionGrowth
Responses to stimuli
Development in multicellular organisms
On a larger scale:Entire populations or species may disperse fromone geographic location to another over time
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Life Obeys Physical Laws
The complex molecular organization in living cells is
attained and maintained only as long as energy fuels the
organization
Survival, growth, and reproduction of animals require
energy that comes from breaking complex food
molecules into simple organic waste
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Theories on the Origin
of Life on EarthTheory of
Spontaneous
Generation or
biogenesis
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Theory of Biogenesis
A theory proposed by Rudolf
Virchow
Believed that Life came frompre- existing life
LOUIS PASTEUR
Disproved spontaneousgeneration of microbes
by preventing dustparticles fromreaching the sterilebroth
Showed microbescaused fermentationand spoilage