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Outline of lecture 1 Introduction to course Textbooks What is formal logic? Propositional logic Propositions Propositional connectives Formalisation of arguments
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EE1J2 Propositional Logic
Basic ideas: propositions, connectives Formalising statements in ‘natural language’ Formal proofs
Set theory Basic ideas: definitions of sets Relations, functions and equivalence relations Cardinality, finite, countable and uncountable sets
Predicate Logic Logic programming
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Tutorial sheets One tutorial sheet handed out each week To be handed in approx 1 week later Questions and model solutions will appear
on my web pages
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Web Pages http://www.eee.bham.ac.uk/russellm/ee1j2.html All materials used in course will appear on course
web pages Powerpoint slides Homework sheets Homework solutions
Please don’t print the notes – I’ll hand out copies each week
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Class test (week 6) Questions in class test will be selected from
tutorial sheets So, if you do the tutorial sheets you should
do well in the class test!
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Recommended Books
John Truss, “Discrete Mathematics for Computer Scientists”, Addison-Wesley, Second Edition, 1999
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Recommended Books (cont.) Nimal Nissanke,
“Introductory Logic and Sets for Computer Scientists”, Addison-Wesley, 1999
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Recommended Books New this year: James A Anderson,
“Discrete Mathematics with Combinatorics (2nd edition)”, Prentice-Hall, 2004
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Recommended books (cont.) Rod Haggarty
“Discrete mathematics for computing”
Addison Wesley
A Chetwynd and P Diggle,
“Discrete Mathematics” Butterworth-Heinemann
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Other books
I have also made use of two other books: Geoffrey Finch, “How to study
linguistics”, Macmillan, 1998 J N Crossley and others, “What is
mathematical logic?”, Oxford University Press, 1972
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Introduction to logic What is logic? Why is it useful? Types of logic
Propositional logic Predicate logic
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What is logic? Logic n.1. The branch of philosophy
concerned with analysing the patterns of reasoning by which a conclusion is drawn from a set of premises, without reference to meaning or context
(Collins English Dictionary)
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Why study logic? Logic is concerned with two key skills,
which any computer engineer or scientist should have: Abstraction Formalisation
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Why is logic important? Logic is a formalisation of reasoning. Logic is a formal language for deducing
knowledge from a small number of explicitly stated premises (or hypotheses, axioms, facts)
Logic provides a formal framework for representing knowledge
Logic differentiates between the structure and content of an argument
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Logic as formal language In this course, logic will be presented as a
formal language Within that formal language:
Knowledge can be stated concisely and precisely
The process of reasoning from that knowledge can be made rigorous
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What is an argument?
An argument is just a sequence of statements.
Some of these statements, the premises, are assumed to be true and serve as a basis for accepting another statement of the argument, called the conclusion
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Deduction and inference If the conclusion is justified, based solely on the
premises, the process of reasoning is called deduction
If the validity of the conclusion is based on generalisation from the premises, based on strong but inconclusive evidence, the process is called inference (sometimes called induction)
This course is concerned only with deduction
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Two examples Deductive argument:
“Alexandria is a port or a holiday resort. Alexandria is not a port. Therefore, Alexandria is a holiday resort”
Inductive argument“Most students who did not do the tutorial
questions will fail the exam. John did not do the tutorial questions. Therefore John will fail the exam”
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Some different types of logic
Historically, a number of types of logic have been proposed.
In this course we will studyPropositional logic (Boole, 1815-1864)
Predicate logic (Frege 1848-1925)
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Propositional logic
Simple types of statements, called propositions, are treated as atomic building blocks for more complex statements
Alexandria is a port or a holiday resort.
Alexandria is not a port.
Therefore, Alexandria is a holiday resort
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Propositional logic
Basic propositions in the argument are
p – Alexandria is a port
q – Alexandria is a holiday resort. In abstract form, the argument becomes
p or q
Not q
Therefore q
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Predicate logic Extension of propositional logic A ‘predicate’ is just a property Predicates define relationships between
any number of entities using qualifiers: “for all”, “for every” “there exists”
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Example Let P(x) be the property
‘if x is a triangle then the sum of its internal angles is 180o”
In predicate logic:
x P(x) “For every x such that x is a triangle, the
sum of the internal angles of x is 180o”
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Another example Let P(x) be the property
‘x is an integer and x2 = 4’ Then
x P(x) “There exists x such that x is an integer and
x2 = 4”
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Newton’s second law of motion
x: Object stationary(x) in-uniform-motion (x) f : Force x is-acted-upon-by f
In English: “for every x of a certain type referred to as an Object, x is stationary, x is in uniform motion, or there is an f of type Force such that x is acted upon by f”
“for every x” “of type called object” “or”
“there exists an f”
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and Remember:
x ‘for every x’, or ‘for All x’
x ‘there is an x’ or ‘there Exists an x’
Tip:
Think of as an upside down ‘A’ (‘for All’)
Think of as a backwards ‘E’ (‘there Exists’)
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Propositions A (atomic, elementary) proposition is the
underlying meaning of a simple declarative sentence, which is either true or false
The truth or falsehood of a proposition is indicated by assigning it one of the truth values T (for true) or F (for false)
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Example propositions
Mammals are warm blooded
The sun orbits the earth
The evergreen forests of Canada consist of spruce, pine and fir trees
John is taller than Joan
Joan is shorter than John
John is not shorter than Joan
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Sentences which are not propositions
Over millions of years they build up on top of one another to form a reef
Can the arctic hare change the colour of its coat to match its surroundings?
Put down that book!
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Which are propositions?
Can pigs fly?
Pigs can fly
Sparrows can fly
Joe runs faster than Patrick
Patrick runs slower than Joe
Pay your bills on time
The circumference of a circle is equal to four times its diameter
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Propositional connectives These are the words that we use to join
atomic propositions together to form compound propositions. E.G:
In 1938 Hitler seized Austria, (and) in 1939 he seized former Czechoslovakia and in 1941 he attacked the former USSR while still having a non-aggression pact with it
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Propositional connectives Propositional logic has four connectives
Name Read as Symbol
negation ‘not’
conjunction ‘and’
disjunction ‘or’
implication ‘if…then…’
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Connective Interpretation
negation p is true if and only if p is false
A conjunction pq is true if and only if both p and q are true
A disjunction pq is true if and only if p is true or q is true.
An implication p q is false if and only if p is true and q is false
Interpretation of connectives
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Some more terminology… Expressions either side of a conjunction are
called conjuncts (pq) Expressions either side of a disjunction are
called disjuncts (pq) In the implication p q, p is called the
antecedent and q is the consequence
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Precedence of connectives In complex propositions, brackets may be
used to remove ambiguity.
(p q) r versus p (q r) By convention, the order of precedence
Brackets, Negation, Conjunction, Disjunction, Implication
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Formalisation
StatementIn 1938 Hitler seized Austria, (and) in 1939 he seized former Czechoslovakia and in 1941 he attacked the former USSR while still having a non-aggression pact with it
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Formalisation (continued)
Atomic propositions:p – In 1938 Hitler seized Austriaq – In 1939 Hitler seized former Czechoslovakiar – In 1941 Hitler attacked the former USSRs – In 1941 Hitler had a non-aggression pact with the former USSR
Formalisation in Propositional Logic:p q r s
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Although both Stanley and Gordon are not young, Stanley has a better chance of winning the next bowling tournament, despite Gordon’s considerable experience
Formalisation
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Formalisation (continued)
Atomic propositions:p – Stanley is young
q – Gordon is young
r – Stanley has a better chance of winning the next bowling tournament
s – Gordon has considerable experience in bowling
Formalisation in Propositional Logic:(p) (q) r s
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Negation and atomic propositions
Note that for first atomic proposition I chose:
Stanley is young
and not
Stanley is not young