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GENERAL YUE FEI DEFEATS HIS OPPONENT IN A MARTIAL COMPETITION.
Illustrations provided by W. Acevedo, except where noted.
Abstract
Mixed martial arts (MMA) has become one of the fastest-growing combat sports in the twenty-
first century, drawing millions of Pay-Per-View spectators since the inception of the ultimate
Fighting Championship (UFC) in 1993. Popular conceptions have credited the creation of MMA
to Bruce Lee. a Chinese-American actor and martial artist who became an icon in the 1970s and
who is still considered by many as a revolutionary figure in the field. This paper will present, in
chronological order, examples of ancient Chinese martial arts concepts preceding the creation of
modern MMA.
30 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung
A HistoricalOverview ofMixed MartialArts in Chinaby William Acevedo, M.Eng.and Mei Cheung, B.A.
M;ixed martial arts (MMA) is anLeclectic combat sport combining
striking and grappling techniques—extracted mainly from Muay Thai,Brazilian Jiu Jitsu (BJJ), westernwrestling, and boxing—which throughthe Ultimate Fighting Championship(UFC) banner has become one of thefastest-growing sports in the world(Trembow, 2007). It attracts an averageof 3.1 million Pay-Per-View spectatorsand employs 270 fighters (Miller, 2008).Dana White, the president of the most
popular fighting event in the west, acknowledges the importance of Bruce Lee'straining philosophy and the influence of his films to popularize Chinese martialarts outside China's borders (Miller, 2008). Lee's background was mainly in wingchun iyong chun), a fighting style that emphasizes short-range techniques; how-ever, through his experience. Lee came to the realization that fighting requiresone to prepare himself in other areas that his physical frame and basic stylelacked. Hence Lee spent a great deal of effort researching different strength andconditioning methods: hand techniques from western boxing; kicking tech-niques derived from Muay Thai; French savate; and Korean taekwondo, takedowns from Japanese judo and wrestling, joint locks from jujutsu, and even west-em fencing, to name a few influences (Lee, 1975).
Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 31
Moreover, Lee also criticized what he called "flowery forms and organizeddespair" (Little, 1999), in reference to the routines practiced by the differentmartial arts systems and the unrealistic training methods of many schools. InLee's opinion an excellent physical condition combined with noncooperativepractice against a resisting opponent were the keys for martial excellence (Lee &.Uyehara, 1977). Even though Bruce Lee's ideas inspired millions to follow themartial path, there are many examples throughout China's history indicatingthat these theories were already well known, as developed in this paper.
Earlier Centuries ofImperial China (221 BCE-1912 CE)
Many civilizations had their ownstyle of grappling, and China is no excep-tion. The Chinese believed that headbutting ijiao di) was created by a godnamed Chi You. He's also credited for cre-ating metal weapons and for head buttinghis enemies (Birrell, 1993). Head buttingmight have developed over time from agame to an early Chinese wrestling style.By the Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE),Chinese grappling became an official mili-tary sport evolving both in technique aswell as terminology. Branches of grapplingarts became known as juedi during the Qindynasty, xiangpu during in the Tang(618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties(Henning, 2001), to shuai jiao in modernChina.
Parallel to the evolution of grap-pling, striking methods were also practicedand differentiated from grappling. The firstmention of a striking method, called bo (use of the hands to strike), was used asearly as the Warring States Period (475-221 BCE). This concept also appears inearly Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE) books to describe survival activities such ashunting and fighting (Ma, 2000). In the Boole of Songs (Wikipedia, 2010), theterm bo shou was used to describe "fighting with animals" (Ma, 2000). The rela-tionship between hunting and martial skills lies in the fact that hunting was con-
HAN DYNASTY ORNAMENT (ABOVE)
DEPICTING JUEDI, AND (BELOW) A
RUBBING DEPICTING XIANGPU.
32 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung
sidered a preparatory activity for war: not only physically demanding, but alsorequiring planning and strategy in order to be successful (Lin, 1996).
In his History of the Former Han, the Chinese historian Ban Gu (32-92CE) refers to a book titled Shou Bo as part of a series of entries on martial prac-tices. To date, this book has not been found (Shahar, 2008). By the ThreeKingdoms period (220 CE-280 CE), military skills flourished as a consequenceof the social unrest and continuous border disputes. Skills in tbe weapons of waras well as empty-hand methods were important for troop training, even thoughempty-hand methods were considered a basic skill (Qi & Ma, 1560, 1980). Themethods included in the practice of shou bo were grappling and striking tech-niques, and practicing these skills was "for real" (Ma, 2000). The concept andpractice for fighting effectiveness has been neglected by many modern Chinesemartial artists by converting their practice to nothing more than "flowery" per-formance or self-development practices. Some traditional Chinese martial artshave preserved the ancient practical approach by including the basic elements offlghting, such as kicking, punching, throwing, seizing, and the use of weapons.
It is important to point out that these ancient combat skills were not forsport or combat sports. One important commonality between the skills found inthe ancient combat arts and those in martial sports is in the mixing of comple-mentary striking and grappling techniques. Such a mixture of techniques allowsone to prepare for any combat situation, either in the ring, as where modernMMA matches are held, or the battlefield of ancient China. An example of thelethality of ancient shou bo is found in the Spring and Autumn Annals in the com-mentary by a master named Gao Gonyang. This source tells us that in "681 BCE,Wang of Song is said to have killed Duke Min by striking him and breaking hisneck" using his skill in bo (Henning, 2001).
The Imperial Military Examinations
Empress Wu Zetian (r. 690-705 CE), the first woman to become empressregnant of China, was responsible for instituting the imperial military examina-tions as a way to eliminate the remaining influence of the Li family, former rulersof the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE). The requirements for the officers applying totake the examinations included several "mixed" martial abilities to be demon-strated. During the Tang, military examinations included flghting skills such asthe use of spear on horse, archery, and physical strength. By the Ming dynasty(1368-1644 CE), the examinations included more subjects as part of the evalu-ation, including archery, long spear, saber, straight sword, close-quarters fighting,wrestling, etc. (Ma, 2000).
Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 33
Qing dynasty (1644-1912 CE) military examinations adopted elementsfrom the Ming system requiring the candidates to demonstrate mastery inarchery, horse riding, saber, and stone lifting, as well as a written exam on mar-tial theory (Ma, 2009; Miysaki, 1976). Additional to these subjects, wrestlingwas also an important part of military training for the Manchu rulers, who had along wrestling tradition, to the point of organizing a special camp with the bestwrestlers, known as the Shanpu Ying Camp (Ma, 2009).
Outlaws of the Marsh: Literary Descriptions of Ancient Martial SkillsEvidence of martial eclecticism or "mixed martial arts" as well as critical
commentaries about "flowery" methods, can also be found in literary novels, oneof which is Outlaws of the Marsh, also known as AÍÍ Men are Bothers, or the Water
Mar^n. This novel contains the best descriptions of ancient military skills, withsuch realism to be considered an encyclopedia on Chinese martial arts practices(Ying & Yan, 2008). In chapter 2 of the novel, a military arms instructor knownby the name Wang J in is forced to seek refuge to avoid the persecution of a tyrantmarshal. As the story goes, Wang Jin and his mother make a stop at a manor,where its kind owner takes them in. After a short stay and while Wang preparesthe horses, he witnesses a young man practicing with a staff. After watching theyoung lad, Wang makes the following comment: "Not a bad style, but it has itsweaknesses. It wouldn't stop anyone who was really good" (Shapiro, Shi, & Luo,1980).
This passage reveals the concept of practicality versus "flowery" move-ment when training for combat, and it can be applied in the practice of martialarts with or without weapons. A second passage about the same arms instructorhas him teaching the young man named Shi Jin, who was the son of Wang Jin'shost, the eighteen weapons of war as a sign of gratitude for the hospitality Wangand his mother received at the manor. These weapons were the following:"lance, mallet, long bow, crossbow, jingal, jointed bludgeon, truncheon, sword,chain, hooks, hatchet, axe, trident, shield, staff, spear and rake" (Shapiro, Shi,& Luo, 1980). One could argue that mastering these weapons, as the novel goes,in less than a year is an exaggeration. However, this passage could also be takenin a different context, indicating that the warrior should familiarize himself withdifferent fighting methods in order to be prepared for any situation encounteredin the unpredictable scenario of the battlefield.
The novel also describes wrestling matches on an elevated platform(leitai), like and ancient "octagon," where fighters tested their skills in combatunder the watchful eye of a judge. The contestants had to write a waiver in case
34 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung
of death or injury (Shapiro, Shi, & Luo, 1980). These competitions were a com-mon occurrence by the Song dynasty (Kang, 1995).
OUTLAWS
OF T H E M A R S H
YAN Q I N G DEFEATS
HIS OPPONENT
ON THE LE/TAI.
Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 35
The Classic of PugilismDuring the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE), pirates from Japan and China
among other nations, increased their incursions along China's coastlines ofFujian, Zhejiang, and Shandong provinces. These attacks could not be stoppedby the regular army, which was focused on the northern borders. For this reason,a special group of commanders was put in charge of organizing special Chinesetroops, civil, and even monastic militias to stop the pirates. Among the mostfamous military leaders of the time was General Qi Jiguang (1528-1588 CE),who wrote the New Book of Effective Discipline (1560). His military manual cov-ers battle formations, weaponry, rations, empty-hand fighting, and other topics.
The section dealing with empty-hand fighting is the oldest survivingChinese empty-hand martial arts manual in existence, titled Classic ofPu^lism,Chapter on Essentials. Qi combined what he considered the most practical fight-ing styles without weapons of his time, from which Qi extracted thirty-twomovements to train his troops in empty-hand fighting. These styles are (Qi &.Ma, 1560, 1980; Wile, 1999):
Ba Shan Fan
Ershisi Qi Tan Ma
Houquan
Huaquan
Li Bantian Zhi Tui
Liu Buquan
Liu Hong Ba Xia
Mian Zhang Duan Da
Qian Die Zhang Zhi Die
Sanshiliu He Suo
Shier Dun
Song Taizu 32 Shi Changquan
Wen Jia 72 Xingquan
ying Zhua Wang Zhi Na
Zhang Bojin Zhi Da
« # •
8 Evasive Maneuvers
24 Probing Throwing Horse Techniques
Monkey Boxing
Decoy Boxing
Li Bantian's Shantung Leg Techniques
6 Steps Boxing
Liu Hong's Eight Throws
Zhang's Close-quarters Cotton Boxing
Qian's 1.000 Falling Techniques
36-Posture Seizing Routine
Twelve Close-quarters Postures
Song Taizu's 32 Long Boxing Postures
Wen Family's 72-Posture Routine
Wang's Eagle Claw Seizing Techniques
Zhang Bojin's Striking Techniques
36 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung
Qi's work shows an early eclectic understanding based on practical expe-rience, requiring a thorough preparation for battle, removing the boundaries andallegiances to any specific martial art style. This approach of "mixed martial arts"includes long- and short-range techniques as well as grappling technique, such aslocking, seizing and falling (Qi &. Ma, 1560, 1980). Qi also emphasized practi-cality by testing one's skills in combat. Even so, routines practice is a methodused even today in China to train a great number of soldiers because it is usefulto teach basic body mechanics. Ming military experts such as Tang Shunzhi(1507-1560) stressed that "the reasons for postures in the martial arts is to facil-itate transformations.... Forms contain fixed postures, but in actual practicethere are no fixed postures. When applied they become fluid, but still maintaintheir structural characteristics" (Wile, 1999).
Qi also quotes an old adage that agrees with Tang's assessment: "If you lackgood posture, you will be defeated in one move, if mistakes are made, you will beineffective within ten moves" (Qi & Ma, 1560, 1980). The above statementsreveal that even though routines training helps to develop good posture andbody mechanics, in real practice, the martial artist does not follow a set pattern.Nevertheless, one must maintain proper alignment in order to apply any fight-ing technique effectively.
Republican China (1911-1949)
At the beginning of the twentieth century, China was at a crossroadsbetween modernization and the preservation of its traditions. Martial arts wereshunned by intellectuals educated overseas, who considered them outdated andunfit to strengthen the bodies of China's citizenry (Brownell, 1995). Despitethese attitudes, Chinese martial arts were preserved and used for military andcivilian training. During the Warlord Period (1916-1928), Ceneral Ma Liang(a.k.a. Ma Zizhen, 1878-1947) edited training manuals presenting aspects ofempty-hand flghting, Chinese wrestling, and the use of sword and staff. Thesemanuals were used for military as well as police unit training (Lin, 1996; Svinth,1999). What concerns us about Ma's approach for this discussion is the combi-nation of some striking styles as well as wrestling techniques to be taught as partof this new program named New Martial Arts (xin wushu) (Lin, 1996). However,this curriculum was short lived and disappeared from national view after theopening of the Central National Arts Academy in 1928.
The Central Academy's curriculum was made of several empty-hand aswell as weapons styles. During its initial years, the academy required its studentsto be well versed in some form of martial art, having to demonstrate it against an
Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 37
1
i
A
.ai
t—*
(«1)1
rdA
i ' )
i- T
t i ÍL
íS|- + «
? i
-> .fí. T
PAGES FROM GENERAL M A LIANG'S CHINESE
BOXING MANUAL ( L E F T ) AND FROM HIS WRESTLING MANUAL ( R I G H T ) .
opponent before being accepted to the program (Hsu & Chang, 2010). This cur-riculum was a "mix" of several styles, such as eight extremes boxing, mind andintent boxing, eight trigrams palm, chopping palms, supreme ultimate boxing,Chinese wrestling, and several weapons. In addition to practicing the abovementioned styles, the students had to demonstrate their skill in combat againstother students. One of the main testing grounds organized by the academy wasthe institution of a national exam. Two national exams were organized, in 1928and 1933, even though some provinces organized a similar examination at localand provincial levels. During the examinations, participants faced each other inmatches of Chinese wrestling, empty hand, long weapons, and short weaponsfighting. Empty-hand fighting allowed striking as well as wrestling techniquesand was fought on an elevated platform (Ma, 2009; Chong, 1996). The acade-my's instructors created several routines "mixing" different martial art styles. Oneexample is the complete forms of eight trigrams palm. This routine combines theold eight palms form with elements ofxingjiquan, shuai jiao, and kickingmethods (Miller, 1992).
Additionally, during this peri-od, renowned martial artist and schol-ar Ma Fengtu (1888-1973) createdthe "Connect AH" (Tongbei) system of
1928 NATIONAL SANSHOU EXAMINATION.
Photo courteiy of Ma Lianzhen, President,
International Gnoshu Association.
38 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung
martial arts, which includes long- and short-range styles, as well as weapons prac-
tice. These styles are: bajiquan, piguaquan, tumbling boxing, and poking foot.
Ma was also an expert in Chinese wrestling. Ma's inspiration came from his stud-
ies of Qi Jiguang's writings, specifically the blending of different styles in order to
be prepared for any type of confrontation (Acevedo, Cheung, &. Hood, 2008).
The following Republican Era martial artists also combined striking and grap-
pling as part of their training:
• Bu Enfu (1911-?): combined his knowledge oí shuaijiao. yi quan. and
western boxing; Bu believed that the highest levels of skill would come
through combining grappling and pugilism (Burroughs. 2006).
• Chang Dongsheng ( 1910-1986): learned taijiquan and xingyiquan at the
Central Martial Arts Academy, blending striking and throwing techniques.
• Tong Zhongyi (1879-1963): was an expert in six harmonies boxing,
techniques of catching and locking, and Mongolian-style wrestling. Tong
combined the three and created his unique fighting techniques (Chong. 1996).
• Wang Ziping (1881-1973): an expert of Long Fist, shuaijiao. bajiquan:
created a routine called Twenty Methods Fighting Form, which combines
seizing, throwing, and striking techniques (Ruggieri. 2009).
Moreover, famous martial artist Wan Laisheng (1903-1995), who partici-
pated in the first national examination, also criticized "flowery" practices over
combat effectiveness. To Wan, practicing moves without martial intention and
understanding of their practical applications was equivalent to dancing (Wan
2010). Wan also stressed the importance of testing martial arts against a resist-
ing opponent and learning from the experience no matter the outcome (Wan,
2006).
SHUAIJIAO MASTERS
IN TiANjiN CITY,
1930. LEFT TO RIGHT:
ZHANG LIANCHEN,
ZHANG HONGYU,
WANG WENHAI,
Bu ENFU,
MA WENPING,
AND
WANG HAIZHENG.
Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 39
REAR NAKED CHOKE.
ARM TRIANGLE.
Inspiration for some grappling techniques could very well have beenpassed on to Japan by Chen Yuanyun (1587-1671), who is credited by thefounders of the Kito-ryu school of jujutsu as the source of some of their skills(Henning, 1999). Kano Jigoro (1860-1938), the Japanese master that foundedjudo, was a student of Kito-ryu. Moreover, many ground-fighting techniquesfound in modem BJJ were introduced to Brazil by Maeda Mitsuyo (1878-1941),a Japanese judo master credited to have taught the Gracie family, who createdBJJ. A good example of the use of grappling techniques for police units, as prac-ticed in China during the Republican period, is the book by Liu Jinsheng andZhao Jiang titled Seizing Skills (1936). This book contains several techniques sim-ilar to those being used in modern MMA, such as the use of the guard to controlan opponent, submissions such as the rear naked choke, standing guillotine, armtriangle, the "chicken wing," ankle lock, and knee and arm bar (Liu, Zhao, &.Cartmell, 2007).
Modern DevelopmentsOn May 23, 2009, at UFC 98 Lyoto Machida, a fighter of Brazilian-
Japanese heritage, shocked the world after winning the light heavy weight titlevia a knockout. Joe Rogan, the colorful commentator of the UFC, announcedMachida's victory as a "new era" in MMA. What made Machida's victory moresurprising is the fact that his martial background is a traditional version ofShotokan karate or Machida karate. Up until that point, MMA was dominatedby fighters with a background in Muay Thai, BJJ, western boxing, and collegewrestling. However, Machida was able to climb the ranks using his karate, sumo,and BJJ, combined with a short stint in Muay Thai to prepare himself against thecompetition during his meteoric career in the UFC (Machida, 2009).
40 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung
An important point in the development of Shotokan karate is that its cre-ator Funakoshi Gichin (1868-1957), a native of Okinawa, borrowed elementsfrom Chinese boxing. His book. Karate Do Kyohan, contains references to theChinese book Wubei Zhi or Bubishi in Japanese (Manual of Military Preparedness).
There are two versions of the Wubei Zhi. The original treatise was edited by Mingmilitary expert Mao Yuanyi (1594-1640). Mao's encyclopedia contains 240 vol-umes dealing with famous battles, strategy, military formations, troop training,etc. The version used by Funakoshi and other Okinawa masters during the sameperiod is a volume made out of notes from martial traditions in Fujian province—mainly white crane and monk boxing (McCarthy, 1995).
Hence, Machida's success raises awareness of the effectiveness of tradi-tional martial arts in MMA, specifically Chinese martial arts. There is a wealthof techniques that has yet to be explored, even though MMA has started to growin China, sponsored by the Art of War^" promotion. One of the areas tradition-al Chinese martial arts lacks is ground fighting, a must in modern MMA; how-ever a few BJJ instructors started teaching this art back in 1998 and are beingsought by the new wave of Chinese MMA fighters (Brundage, 2008). Most of theChinese MMA athletes have a background in modern freestyle sanshou, sanda(an independent fighting style, not related to a particular traditional Chinesemartial art) (Acevedo, Cheung, & Hood, 2008); therefore traditional martialarts are yet to be represented in the octagon. Despite the proven record of mod-ern sanshou, there is much to benefit from traditional systems and methods. Intime we may witness the application of traditional Chinese martial arts in MMAcompetitions.
ConclusionsWe have presented several examples from early sources, as well as literary
examples of an early eclecticism and cross-training mind-set in the practice ofChinese martial arts. Ancient Chinese warriors were also aware of the need topractice these methods in realistic ways in order to apply them correctly whenneeded. These concepts preceded the creation of modern MMA and the theo-ries made popular in the west by Bruce Lee in the seventies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors wish to thank Stanley E. Henning
for his valuable insights and Tim Cartmell as well.
Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 41
• baguazhang
• bajiquan
• baida
• baihequan
• bian
• bo
• bo shou
• chang bing qi
• chang quan
• chong
• chui
• chuo jiao
•da
• die
• dao
• duan bing qi
• duanda
• er shi faquan
• fanziquan
• f u
• ge
• gong
• gou
• gun
• gun shue ke
• guo kao
• he suo
• jian
• jian
• jian shu ke
• jiao di
eight trigrams palm
eight extremes boxing
close quarters fighting
white crane boxing
whip (jointed bludgeon?)
striking with hands
striking beast
long weapon
long boxing
jingal
hammer
poking foot
hit
fall down
knife (saber)
short weapon
short hitting
Twenty Fighting Methods
tumbling boxing
ax
trident; dagger-axe
bow
hook
stick/staff
stick/staff training course
national examination
locking
sword
truncheon
sword training course
head butting
-S:*-
71
m,
-151
42 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung
• lao ba zhang
• lei tai
• lian
• ma bu jian
• mao
• na
• nu
• pa
• pai
• piquaquan
• qiang
• qinna fa
• quan jiao ke
• quan shi baguazhang
• rou dao (judo)
• rou shu (jujutsu)
• sanda
• sanshou
• shanpu ying
• sheng shi kao
• shou bo
• shuai
• shuai jiao ke
• taijiquan
• t i
• tui fa
• xian kao
• xiangpu (sumo)
• xin wushu
• xingyiquan
• yong chun/wing chun
old eight palms
competition platform
chain
horse stance (archery)
lance
capture/seizing
crossbow
rake
shield
chopping boxing
spear
seizing methods
fists feet discipline
complete baquazhang style
gentle way
gentle art
free fighting
free sparring
Expert Devoted Battalion
provincial examination
hand fight
throw/fall
throw/fall fighting discipline
supreme ultimate boxing
kick
leg methods
local examination
mutual striking
new martial arts
mind and intent boxing
spring chant boxing
•it*
Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 43
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